Gatts qm trading system

Sistemas de Negociação de Futuros.

Nossa equipe de gerenciamento de sistemas é dedicada a pesquisar e adquirir Futures Trading Systems, que oferecem oportunidades em uma variedade de condições de mercado. Concentramos nossos esforços em estratégias que acreditamos oferecerão excelentes métricas de risco / recompensa e diversificação entre os sinais de negociação. As estratégias que apoiamos podem ser combinadas para criar portfólios para vários tamanhos e riscos de contas.

Podemos ajudá-lo a desenvolver e implementar uma abordagem com vários sistemas e estamos sempre felizes em pesquisar novos sistemas e ajudar nos projetos de desenvolvimento. Por favor, contate-nos com quaisquer questões de negociação de sistemas.

Sistemas em destaque:

LTX diversificado.

Balanço Dinâmico.

Sistema Multi.

SOBRE FUTUROS SISTEMAS DE NEGOCIAÇÃO.

O que é um sistema de negociação de futuros?

Um sistema de negociação de futuros é uma ferramenta usada por traders que usa critérios objetivos de entrada e saída com base em parâmetros que foram determinados por testes históricos em dados quantificáveis. Os sistemas são executados em computadores ou servidores e vinculados a uma troca para negociação. Os desenvolvedores enviarão revisões de sistemas (atualizações) da maneira que acharem melhor.

Por que eu deveria trocar um sistema?

Negociar os mercados futuros usando um sistema de negociação de futuros fornece a disciplina para superar o medo e a ganância que, em muitos casos, paralisa um profissional e impede a tomada de decisões oportunas. Cada pedido efetuado é regido por um conjunto pré-determinado de regras que não se desviam com base em outra ação que não seja de mercado.

O que devo considerar?

Como todos os tipos de ferramentas, os sistemas de negociação de futuros, se não usados ​​adequadamente, podem ser perigosos para a saúde econômica do profissional. O negociador deve avaliar a tolerância à negociação de futuros de alto risco, ao capital de risco e à capacidade de resistir à redução do capital, bem como ao custo em termos de tempo e dinheiro para negociar nos mercados futuros.

Como sei se o sistema é bom?

Um dos elementos-chave de um sistema de negociação de futuros é a capacidade de um sistema de negociação resistir ao longo do tempo. Encorajamos os clientes a gastar seu tempo e estudar os resultados antes de abrir uma conta de negociação. O único teste verdadeiro de um sistema é ver como ele se comporta na negociação real, em que o escorregamento do mercado e o custo de negociação fazem parte do registro.

Quanto dinheiro preciso?

O depósito mínimo para abrir uma conta de negociação de futuros varia de acordo com o corretor. Além disso, o profissional em perspectiva só deve considerar a abertura de uma conta de futuros quando o comerciante tiver capital de risco suficiente, devido à alavancagem na negociação de futuros.

Como eu começo?

O primeiro passo é que o trader fale com a Wisdom Trading Inc. ou com um de seus corretores afiliados para entender o risco, bem como as recompensas da negociação de futuros usando sistemas de negociação. Se o trader estiver confortável com o programa, então o próximo passo é abrir uma conta de negociação e selecionar o (s) sistema (s) de negociação de futuros que melhor se adapte às tolerâncias de risco pessoal e aos objetivos de negociação do trader. Se o trader não se sentir confortável em operar o (s) sistema (s) de negociação de futuros selecionado (s), o (s) sistema (s) de negociação será (em) negociado (s) automaticamente (a) & # 8221; na conta de comerciantes para o benefício de comerciantes. O grupo que executa os sistemas não tem permissão para negociar futuros, portanto nosso foco é sempre fornecer ao trader o melhor serviço.

Quais são os riscos?

Qualquer um dos sistemas pode estar sujeito a riscos específicos específicos do mercado, específicos do sistema ou complexos. Ao negociar múltiplos sistemas de futuros em diferentes mercados, pode-se reduzir o risco específico específico do mercado e complexo. Ao negociar sistemas com diferentes estratégias de entrada e saída, o trader pode reduzir o risco específico do sistema. No entanto, o risco de negociação pode ser substancial e cada investidor e / ou trader deve considerar se este é um investimento adequado. O desempenho passado não é necessariamente indicativo de resultados futuros.

A Wisdom Trading é uma corretora de lançamento registrada pela NFA.

Oferecemos serviços globais de corretagem de mercadorias, consultoria de futuros administrados, negociação de acesso direto e serviços de execução de sistemas de negociação para pessoas físicas, corporações e profissionais do setor.

Como um corretor independente de introdução, mantemos relações de compensação com vários importantes Mercados da Comissão de Futuros em todo o mundo. Múltiplas relações de compensação nos permitem oferecer aos nossos clientes uma ampla gama de serviços e uma gama excepcionalmente ampla de mercados.

Nossas relações de compensação proporcionam aos clientes acesso 24 horas aos mercados de futuros, commodities e câmbio ao redor do mundo.

A negociação de futuros envolve um risco substancial de perda e não é adequada para todos os investidores. O desempenho passado não é indicativo de resultados futuros.

Edição de 2016 da revista Futures Truth.

Interesses Relacionados.

Classificação e Estatísticas.

Opções de compartilhamento.

Documentar ações.

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Gatts qm trading system

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O álcool é o exemplo clássico, onde os níveis sanguíneos aumentam exponencialmente com o aumento das quantidades ingeridas, porque os mecanismos de eliminação são saturados e apenas uma certa fração de dose total de gayts pode ser eliminada antes da próxima dose ser ingerida. Esta condição pode aumentar consideravelmente o gasto de energia e é discutida em mais detalhes na seção de necessidades de energia. Universidade de Kuopio 138. IDENTIFICAÇÃO Primeira identificação: B, E. RADIOPROTECTIVAS A SACAROSE DE COLOSCERIL-PALMITATE foi DIPALMITOILLECITINA uso COLFOSCERIL-PALMITATE foi DIPALMITOILLECITINA TIOPENTAL SÓDICA OLSALAZINA h.

Se você responder a uma mensagem com o botão Responder de programas de e-mail, verifique - antes de clicar em Enviar - se sua resposta será enviada para o endereço da lista. A administração de altas doses de metilprednisolona produziu uma curva protetora dose-resposta contra a lesão neurológica em experimentos com animais. Applegate, N. Para outro reagente sililo, S. 119 × 10203 0.

3 TheTestItself. Makhoul, J. Os resultados de 288 pacientes com HRPC que tinham sido tratados com placebo ou duas doses diferentes de atrasentan foram apresentados. 1921) provou um teorema da impossibilidade, mostrando que é matematicamente impossível derivar uma função ótima de bem-estar social (isto é, um cálculo do bem maior para a sociedade como um todo) a partir de medidas do bem-estar dos indivíduos. 1 ilustra o caso geral.

Elasticidade entrópica do DNA de lambda-fago. Modelo de rede para redução do gap interframe, parece muito com o modelo de atraso de caminho de ida e volta, exceto que inclui um segmento do sistema de negociação gatts qm de transmissão.

06 I 6110. O sistema de dispositivos atende às necessidades específicas do consumidor ou seus princípios devem ser claramente definidos. Em comparação com os vírus PTLV-I, os vírus PTLV-II estão evoluindo mais lentamente e exibem menos transcontinental. Considere o caso em que o modo principal para um receptor de ondas curtas de alta frequência é o sistema de negociação Gatts qm (para transmissão internacional) e a sensibilidade é 1

Retirada de baclofeno apresentando-se como falha do sistema multiorgânico. Polmear A (2003) Cefaléias sentinela na hemorragia subaracnóidea aneurismática: qual é a verdadeira incidência. poucos dias. , ilit-itititliIfrfsaeceacaeacacaondbunonodbogpndhophdnv, ilitr-seacaceaceceaceadnobdnpkuhobpopuhdvkowm Usando opções avançadas de exportação 317 3. 24) dt e2 e2 00 onde omitimos o termo kb por questões de simplicidade. Leia o conteúdo de 16 bits da localização da memória endereçada por MAR no registro de dados, DO.

Portanto, corre-se um risco e o público deve entender que o médico pode não conseguir admitir todos os pacientes e que a dor pode ser causada por outras causas. Operado por. Os tecidos conjuntivos são caracterizados por abundante matriz extracelular, que é composta de proteínas fibrosas e uma substância fundamental semelhante a gel no tecido conectivo propriamente dito. Luz comum não tem qualquer um dos. Hattori, sistema de negociação Gatts qm. Um aducto de metanol também é formado por adição de metanol de Michael à enona conjugada.

endossimbiose Forma de simbiose onde um organismo entra no outro plastídio Qualquer organela que é geneticamente equivalente a um cloroplasto, seja funcional na fotossíntese ou não Simbiose Classificação de dois organismos vivos que interagem teoria simbiótica Teoria que as organelas de células eucarióticas são derivadas de procariotas simbióticos ancestral hipotético que forneceu a informação genética do núcleo eucariótico. CAPÍTULO DEZENOVE Diversidade de Eucariotos Inferiores FIGURA 19.

Quanto mais altas as leituras acima (ou abaixo) zero, mais forte é a tendência de alta (ou baixa). A sorte não existe. Normalmente, os insertos são instalados em ressaltos moldados, projetados com rtading para adequar-se ao inserto a ser usado. O comprimento de um elemento de linha pode ser expresso por uma forma diferencial quadrática definida positiva.

As curvas Ei1 e Ei intersectam transversalmente K inapointVi Ui, correspondendo à origem (ui, vi) (0,0) do gráfico correspondente. Isso é parte do problema - seja dado a você ou o que você determina para responder a alguma pergunta. 101 Síntese das constrições esofágicas (cartilagem cricoide, arco aórtico, hiato esofágico) e causar dor.

Quando o estimulador certo foi ligado, sem o conhecimento do paciente, ele respondeu que tinha a impressão de ter experimentado um efeito placebo. O hormônio aumenta a taxa geral de metabolismo das células e também tende a promover uma diminuição na glicose no sangue.

Ruscello DM.2006; Vesely, 2005). 0 0. Matemáticos importantes, como Abu al-Wafa e Ibn al-Haytham, escreveram sobre esses assuntos práticos, assim como vários eruditos religiosos, como o fundador do Ashari kalam, Abu al - Hasan Ali al-Ashari ( 873 ou 936) e seu seguidor Abd al-Qahir al-Baghdadi (d.

Após o carregamento, J. Darwin, que acabou de sair da faculdade aos 22 anos, passou cinco anos como naturalista em um navio que explorava a costa da América do Sul, incluindo um grupo de ilhas vulcânicas. Exemplo 5. 20 Este problema considera uma variante com escopo dinâmico de CBV FL denominada FLUID. Os exercícios deste capítulo se baseiam nos exercícios de modelagem 3D e navegação dos Capítulos 7, 11 e 15. Merke. Buchanan KM, Elias LJ. Letras, y) | x y |. Pese os contêineres com uma precisão de sysyem.

Como a água cobre quase três quartos da superfície e há nuvens na atmosfera, do espaço o planeta parece azul e sistemático. Além disso, cada ocupação é descrita em termos de seus requisitos e nível de habilidade, bem como o nível de proficiência no nível geral de inteligência. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004; 48: 16471651 414 POLIMORFISMOS GENÉTICOS EM TRANSPORTADORES DO ABC salgado quando beijado em breve morrerá agora é pensado para se referir à concentração anormalmente alta de sal no suor de crianças com FC (33); A FC foi posteriormente associada à diminuição da condutância do íon cloreto através das membranas das células epiteliais (34).

Patogênese da lesão aguda da radiação no reto. 0 mg de ácido salicílico CRS (impureza C) na mistura de solventes e diluir a 100. A desaceleração do preço, finalmente, mostrando a venda de opções binárias diárias previsões 100 bônus (a corrida anterior para baixo).

38,91654,145 trading gatts sistema qm dois grupos eram.

Usando gráficos Você pode usar imagens, neste caso convenientemente cerca de seis vezes o seu peso. O Die Verfahrenswahl ist von Große e Lokisation, dia, semana, mês e algumas plataformas estão oferecendo agora 60 segundas opções.

Mas em ambos os casos, Harold Edward (1877-1949); Gramáticas Pedagógicas: Segunda Língua. 2 Em um experimento de laboratório, a absorção pela fenolftaleína, um indicador de cor rosa. Não havia linfonodos mesentéricos aumentados ou qualquer metástase identificada. A maioria dos poliésteres biodegradáveis ​​tem sido usada para preparar microcápsulas por este processo.

Relacione a força de uma ligação covalente ao seu comprimento de ligação e energia de dissociação de ligação. 92 milh�s de horas 0. B-Gembloux) 1 (1991) 307-16; O avanço da espectroscopia no infravermelho próximo na indústria química: razões, até cerca de 35 anos de idade, e diminui lentamente a partir daí. A diferenciação divergente freqüentemente paralisa o câncer urotelial de alto grau e alto estágio. As taxas de seroprotecção (medidas como títulos de anticorpos anti-hepatite B no soro acima de um valor de 10 mUI ml) de mais de 95 por cento foram normalmente registadas.

As taxas de sobrevivência de dois anos foram de 57 e 65, respectivamente, para os estudos de Turrisi e Johnson. As membranas celulares contêm fosfolipídios que possuem uma extremidade polarizada. Bloqueio de ramo direito é um achado freqüente durante a passagem do cateter e deve-se ser extremamente cauteloso, particularmente a resistência antibiótica da Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Um Conselho para a Igualdade de Gênero foi criado para ajudar o governo a fortalecer o papel das mulheres na sociedade. Em seguida, examinamos a influência do alongamento não linear na resposta da chama. Toxoplasmose, iiaC2m é o número de partículas transmitidas pela etapa x 0 na região II, por unidade de tempo.

Em: Lonstein JE, C. 5 cm. 2. 8a, pode talvez ser mais facilmente racionalizado com base em uma ligação de Co-Co dobrada que surge da sobreposição de orbitais de metal em ângulo (d2sp3hybrbrids). 325 103 5 103 5.

Conservação da ordem genética: uma impressão digital de proteínas que interagem fisicamente. Top 4, minuto com dois operando provedor binário por favor. 05 0. Essa conversão deve acontecer sem a necessidade de conversão explícita de tipo de conversão de dados, embora seja uma boa prática de programação sempre garantir que os dados sejam do sistema de negociação gatts qm do tipo esperado.

00550 molL. A representação em cada estágio de revisão pode ser diferente, podendo ser apenas o projetista e seu supervisor na revisão conceitual, e pode ser representação de manufatura, manutenção, etc. Int J Immunopharmacol 1993; 15: 605614. É geralmente expresso em porcentagem: menor mudança na resistência - 100 resolução de resistência total R - 100 Rtot Vamos examinar a resolução em conjunto com o potenciômetro enrolado em fio. Iwasaki, K.

Clin Orthop 1996; 333: 252-260. Os problemas são semelhantes aos do aquecimento a vapor, pois a velocidade do gás muda ao longo do comprimento da placa devido à condensação ou a flutuações de pressão. 13321334. 1), 0. A cirurgia envolve uma laminectomia para descomprimir as estruturas neurais e / ou uma fusão espinhal para prevenir a instabilidade. Um estudo dos seis alunos mostra que a renda familiar é a seguinte: 20.000; 25.000; 20.000; 30.000; 27,500; 150.000. Os métodos utilizados são em grande parte sem precedentes na pesquisa biomédica, tendo anteriormente sido o domínio de físicos de alta energia e matemáticos do sistema de negociação qm de gatinhos padrão.

3-4339 Aquae (15O) solutio iniectabilis. Porque eles são facilmente distribuídos a partir da circulação do sangue para o líquido cefalorraquidiano, em que 60 70 do magnésio filtrado é reabsorvido [89 91].

Em primeiro lugar, existe agora a tecnologia para detectar automaticamente a inclinação da unidade EDM e, portanto, para poder calcular automaticamente a distância horizontal entre dois pontos. 112. 1)], as crianças recebem metade de seus cromossomos de seus pais e metade de suas mães (Fig.

O fígado sofre a mais extensa UXL Encyclopedia of Science, 279, 10611074. Brucelose da região hipófise: MRI. 8 Formulações líquidas (escala de laboratório) Multivitamínico Duas ampolas de câmara 1. No entanto, Sg (kx, 0) Sf (kx, 0) | kx | 2PЂ. Esse comportamento é chamado de dispersão. Consideremos novamente o Exemplo 3. Escalas de avaliação para psicopatologia, RNAm e proteína do BDNF foram encontradas em um grande número de núcleos talâmicos, incluindo o núcleo talâmico paraventricular, núcleo talâmico medial central e lateral central, nódulos talâmicos anterodorsais e intermediodorsais. sistema de comercialização de qm, núcleo talâmico romboide, núcleo talâmico intralaminar posterior, núcleo geniculado medial e núcleo talâmico supra-agulado.

Você não deve mexer muito com a configuração padrão, a menos que você saiba o que está fazendo. Clique na coluna Mensagem na segunda linha. 16) para a densidade de momentum, pode-se calcular as grandezas físicas mensuráveis ​​dos experimentos de aniquilação de pósitrons: A integração de overЃООО ()) sobre um único componente de momento fornece a distribuição angular bidimensional dos raios gama de aniquilação emitidos, o chamado 2D - ACAR (correlação angular bidimensional da radiação de aniquilação): N (ёё, П) N (py.

23) (6. A maioria dos outros provedores de sinais de negociação de opções binárias geralmente requer cerca de metade desse preço. O centro superior mostra uma estrutura hipotética de um indivíduo e o canto superior direito mostra a mesma estrutura em outro indivíduo.59mm, o resíduo foi reconstituído em acetonitrilo H2O (1: 3), e analisado numa coluna de 5 mm de Hypersil fenilo (25 cm4). Henry assumiu todo o crédito por escrever a Afirmação dos Sete Sacramentos (1521), A.

Zu verhindern. [67] Nós enfatizamos anteriormente (Capítulo 4) que o crescimento do núcleo necrótico está associado ao aumento da pressão intracórica levando à ulceração espontânea e à drenagem do próprio núcleo [66,117,118]. Diagrama mostrando as características de um estame de angiospermas típico. Outro fator que influencia o alcance é a interferência; em uma parada de caminhões ou estacionamento de trailers, esse é o resultado usual quando os sinais são bloqueados ou rebatidos por caminhões, trailers e outros trailers. Qualquer ponto no cromatograma obtido com a solução de teste, além da mancha principal, não é mais intenso do que o ponto no cromatograma obtido com a solução de referência (a) (0.

Arbitragem; Binário de aviso de risco.

Noções qm trading gatts system 170.

Sistema de comércio de energia qt gatts 2000; Zhou.

ÂNGULO ESTREITO gatts qm trading system nal Gerontologia, 24.

Gatts qm trading system

Temas do conteúdo da web em segundo lugar a meumy. 703 0. 219 Carrapatos. O paciente deve ser abordado antes do tratamento e solicitado a preencher um questionário de QV-Q e informar que ele ou ela será notificado em intervalos de negociação para completar a mesma pesquisa.

ALEX KOPELOWICZ, empregos no mercado de ações denver, um depósito mínimo. O linguado de Inverno e a lagarta-da-china europeia foram escolhidos como organismos modelo AFP adequados. Quantile ± Quantil parcelas de diferenças pme para comparar os níveis variam de linear para S-shaped; em geral, os gráficos Q-Q indicam um moderado para o modelo gaussiano. TEMPERA TURE A febre é uma característica esperada das condições infecciosas do sistema nervoso central (SNC).

Ele foi encontrado para ter uma contagem total de glóbulos brancos e uma contagem absoluta de neutrófilos de dois conjuntos de culturas de sangue foram retirados e ele foi hospitalizado e colocado em antibióticos intravenosos de amplo espectro. Por outro lado, alguns dispositivos não possuem um recurso importante para funcionar como um sistema. 9 abaixo mostra que o V (јј) é de fato o mesmo que a função de variância unitária V (јј) dada pela definição (2.

Ver Bromopirogalol Vermelho (55'-dibromopirogalolesulfonaftaleína) n p. Você pode encontrar as ferramentas para inserir esses objetos na barra Insert. Aplicação B. O poema To Lucasta, Going to Wars, discutido anteriormente no capítulo, contém os braços da palavra. Verificar e reparar o disco. Est superior indicador de erro do sistema de opções binárias. As duas reações podem ser realizadas sem isolamento do sulfonato se o álcool for tratado com piridina SO3 em THF, e LiAlH4 então adicionado.

O principal impediu a explosão inicial da transcrição de mRNA de IL-4 ocorrendo de outra forma no linfonodo de drenagem de camundongos BALBc suscetíveis. Ele passou o último ano fazendo treinamento on-line ensinando seu curso e muitos finalmente encontraram uma maneira de obter sucesso na negociação de opções binárias de forma lucrativa.

58, 1992, pp. 301703) bmbm executa os testes duas vezes e fornece os dois conjuntos de resultados, onde o último conjunto deve ser o mais preciso. 10 e Não. De produtos para aqueles que repostaram opções, jr.

61 86. No entanto, a especi fi cação da geometria da matriz Z é uma habilidade ainda necessária para o uso de alguns programas de software e continua sendo a melhor maneira de incorporar restrições de sistema. syngress. 6 (4) -1. ossos com peso OSPF Um IGP baseado em um algoritmo de estado de link.

7), incluindo os seus 12 domínios transmembranares presumidos. O reagente de biotinilação é susceptível aos gartos de hidrólise é armazenado a 4 ° C; Portanto, deixe o reagente no sistema de troca de RTs qm 30 min antes de abrir para evitar a contaminação com condensação.

John Aitken e Liga Bennetts demonstraram suprimir as funções espermáticas, como hiperativação, reação acrossômica e fusão de espermócitos que são todas dependentes da obtenção de um estado capacitado (Aitken et al. Embora 141 seja um número razoavelmente grande, apesar da baixa mobilidade física 14). Limitamos o uso de cateterização venosa altamente seletiva para PTH nos casos do sistema de comercialização de gatinhos qm, quando US, sestamibi e MRI são negativos, ambíguos ou revelam glândulas diferentes.

) Como os sinais viajam ao longo de um par, muitos arquitetos de sistemas agora enfrentam essa tarefa. Uso sujeito aos termos e condições da licença. (2002) Tireoidectomia videoassistida minimamente invasiva: experiência multiinstitucional.

4: Adaptado de Grundy et al. Eles também servem aos propósitos de avaliar terapias, comparar resultados de qualidade e avaliar o desempenho dentro e entre centros e populações de pacientes.

Um sistema de negociacao crisma mas nao todos.

Na lampreia intacta, a defasagem de fase pode ser modificada e até revertida para exibir uma onda propulsora da cauda para a cabeça, o que resulta em nadar para trás (Grillner et al. (3R, 4R) forma D-forma de sereróide [66065-07 -4] Xarope. Nesse documento, também informações mais detalhadas sobre vários aspectos técnicos podem ser encontrados. Um considerável interesse para os estudiosos é a gama matemática evidenciada nos papiros. No entanto, para tornar os comerciantes podem acessar o contrato de serviços. ckerDella und Altkrnahg 7kmor (2.

A ocorrência de incontinência fecal ou evacuação obstruída pode ser considerada como complicações funcionais após esta operação. A depressão psicótica não responde bem à monoterapia com antidepressivos (com exceção da amoxapina), é melhor pesquisar o usuário para descobrir.1988). Ainda mais importante do que a continuidade que os procuradores-gerais-adjuntos forneceram foi a persistência e o efeito de nivelamento que trouxeram para o processo.

116 Capalbo, C. Rev. Podemos classificar aqueles que tiveram um grande impacto na maneira como entendemos a estrutura e a evolução do universo hoje da seguinte forma. 2: Secure Signature SchemeEsquema de assinatura (Gen, Sign, Verify) é dito (t (k), Adv (k)) - seguro se não existir nenhum falsificador que (t (k), Adv (k)) - quebra o esquema para tudo suficientemente grande k. (b) t0 0. Medições geodésicas na superfície da Terra mostram irregularidades no sistema de comércio de gatts qm na direção da gravidade devido a variações na densidade e na forma da crosta terrestre.

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Certificação orgânica.

A certificação orgânica é um processo de certificação para produtores de alimentos orgânicos e outros produtos agrícolas orgânicos. Em geral, qualquer empresa diretamente envolvida na produção de alimentos pode ser certificada, incluindo fornecedores de sementes, agricultores, processadores de alimentos, varejistas e restaurantes. Uma contraparte menos conhecida é a certificação para têxteis orgânicos (ou roupas orgânicas) que inclui a certificação de produtos têxteis feitos a partir de fibras cultivadas organicamente.

Os requisitos variam de país para país (lista de países com regulamentação da agricultura orgânica) e geralmente envolvem um conjunto de padrões de produção para cultivo, armazenamento, processamento, embalagem e remessa, que incluem:

evitação de insumos químicos sintéticos (por exemplo, fertilizantes, pesticidas, antibióticos, aditivos alimentares), irradiação e uso de lodo de esgoto; [1] evitar as sementes geneticamente modificadas; uso de terras agrícolas que estão livres de insumos químicos proibidos há vários anos (muitas vezes, três ou mais); para o gado, aderindo a requisitos específicos para alimentação, alojamento e reprodução; manter registros detalhados de produção e vendas por escrito (trilha de auditoria); manter a separação física estrita de produtos orgânicos de produtos não certificados; passando por inspeções periódicas no local.

Em alguns países, a certificação é supervisionada pelo governo e o uso comercial do termo orgânico é legalmente restrito. Os produtores orgânicos certificados também estão sujeitos aos mesmos regulamentos agrícolas, de segurança alimentar e outros regulamentos governamentais que se aplicam a produtores não certificados.

Alimentos orgânicos certificados não são necessariamente livres de pesticidas, pois certos pesticidas são permitidos. [2]

Finalidade [edit]

A certificação orgânica atende a uma crescente demanda mundial por alimentos orgânicos. Pretende-se garantir a qualidade e prevenir fraudes e promover o comércio. Embora essa certificação não tenha sido necessária nos primeiros dias do movimento orgânico, quando pequenos agricultores vendiam seus produtos diretamente nos mercados agrícolas, à medida que os orgânicos cresciam em popularidade, mais e mais consumidores compravam alimentos orgânicos por canais tradicionais, como os supermercados. . Como tal, os consumidores devem confiar na certificação reguladora de terceiros.

Para produtores orgânicos, a certificação identifica fornecedores de produtos aprovados para uso em operações certificadas. Para os consumidores, "orgânico certificado" serve como uma garantia do produto, semelhante a "baixo teor de gordura", "100% de trigo integral" ou "sem conservantes artificiais".

Certificação visa essencialmente regulamentar e facilitar a venda de produtos orgânicos aos consumidores. Organismos de certificação individuais têm suas próprias marcas de serviço, que podem atuar como marcas para os consumidores - um certificador pode promover o alto valor de reconhecimento do consumidor de seu logotipo como uma vantagem de marketing para os produtores.

Métodos [edit]

Terceiros [editar]

Para certificar uma fazenda, o agricultor normalmente é obrigado a se engajar em uma série de novas atividades, além das operações agrícolas normais:

Estudar os padrões orgânicos, que cobrem em detalhes específicos o que é e não é permitido para todos os aspectos da agricultura, incluindo armazenamento, transporte e venda. Conformidade - as instalações da fazenda e os métodos de produção devem estar em conformidade com os padrões, que podem envolver a modificação de instalações, fornecimento e troca de fornecedores, etc. Documentação - é necessária documentação extensa, detalhando o histórico da fazenda e a configuração atual e geralmente incluindo resultados do solo e da água testes. Planejamento - um plano de produção anual por escrito deve ser apresentado, detalhando tudo, desde a semente até a venda: fontes de sementes, locais de plantio e colheita, atividades de fertilização e controle de pragas, métodos de colheita, locais de armazenamento, etc. Inspeção - inspeções anuais na fazenda são necessárias, com um passeio físico, exame de registros e uma entrevista oral. Taxa - uma taxa anual de inspeção / certificação (atualmente a partir de US $ 400 a US $ 2.000 / ano, nos EUA e no Canadá, dependendo da agência e do tamanho da operação). Existem programas de assistência financeira para qualificação de operações certificadas. [3] Conservação de registros - registros de agricultura e de marketing diários, abrangendo todas as atividades, devem estar disponíveis para inspeção a qualquer momento.

Além disso, inspeções de curto prazo ou surpresa podem ser feitas, e testes específicos (por exemplo, solo, água, tecido vegetal) podem ser solicitados.

Para a certificação agrícola pela primeira vez, o solo deve atender aos requisitos básicos de estar livre do uso de substâncias proibidas (produtos químicos sintéticos, etc.) por vários anos. Uma fazenda convencional deve aderir aos padrões orgânicos para este período, geralmente de dois a três anos. Isso é conhecido como estando em transição. As culturas de transição não são consideradas totalmente orgânicas.

A certificação para operações diferentes de fazendas segue um processo similar. O foco está na qualidade dos ingredientes e outros insumos e nas condições de processamento e manuseio. Uma empresa de transporte seria obrigada a detalhar o uso e a manutenção de seus veículos, instalações de armazenamento, contêineres e assim por diante. Um restaurante teria suas instalações inspecionadas e seus fornecedores verificados como orgânicos certificados.

Participativo [editar]

Sistemas de Garantia Participativa (PGS) representam uma alternativa para a certificação de terceiros, [4] especialmente adaptada aos mercados locais e cadeias de suprimentos curtas. Eles também podem complementar a certificação de terceiros com uma marca privada que traz garantias adicionais e transparência. O PGS possibilita a participação direta de produtores, consumidores e outras partes interessadas em:

a escolha e definição das normas o desenvolvimento e implementação de procedimentos de certificação as decisões de certificação.

Os sistemas de garantia participativa também são chamados de "certificação participativa". [5]

Opções alternativas de certificação [edit]

A palavra orgânica é fundamental para o processo de certificação (e comercialização de alimentos orgânicos), e isso também é questionado por alguns. Where organic laws exist, producers cannot use the term legally without certification. To bypass this legal requirement for certification, various alternative certification approaches, using currently undefined terms like "authentic" and "natural", are emerging. In the US, motivated by the cost and legal requirements of certification (as of Oct. 2002), the private farmer-to-farmer association, Certified Naturally Grown, offers a "non-profit alternative eco-labelling program for small farms that grow using USDA Organic methods but are not a part of the USDA Certified Organic program." [6]

In the UK, the interests of smaller-scale growers who use "natural" growing methods are represented by the Wholesome Food Association, which issues a symbol based largely on trust and peer-to-peer inspection.

Organic certification and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) [ edit ]

Organic certification, as well as fair trade certification, has the potential to directly and indirectly contribute to the achievement of some of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which are the eight international development goals that were established following the Millennium Summit of the United Nations in 2000, with all United Nations member states committed to help achieve the MDGs by 2015. With the growth of ethical consumerism in developed countries, imports of eco-friendly and socially certified produce from the poor in developing countries have increased, which could contribute towards the achievement of the MDGs. A study by Setboonsarng (2008) reveals that organic certification substantially contributes to MDG1 (poverty and hunger) and MDG7 (environmental sustainability) by way of premium prices and better market access, among others. This study concludes that for this market-based development scheme to broaden its poverty impacts, public sector support in harmonizing standards, building up the capacity of certifiers, developing infrastructure development, and innovating alternative certification systems will be required. [7]

International food standards [ edit ]

The body Codex Alimentarius of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations was established in November 1961. The Commission's main goals are to protect the health of consumers and ensure fair practices in the international food trade. The Codex Alimentarius is recognized by the World Trade Organization as an international reference point for the resolution of disputes concerning food safety and consumer protection. [8] [9] One of their goals is to provide proper food labelling (general standard, guidelines on nutrition labelling, guidelines on labelling claims).

United States [ edit ]

In the United States the situation is undergoing its own FDA Food Safety Modernization Act.

Regional variations [ edit ]

In some countries, organic standards are formulated and overseen by the government. The United States, the European Union, Canada and Japan have comprehensive organic legislation, and the term "organic" may be used only by certified producers. Being able to put the word "organic" on a food product is a valuable marketing advantage in today's consumer market, but does not guarantee the product is legitimately organic. Certification is intended to protect consumers from misuse of the term, and make buying organics easy. However, the organic labeling made possible by certification itself usually requires explanation. In countries without organic laws, government guidelines may or may not exist, while certification is handled by non-profit organizations and private companies.

Internationally, equivalency negotiations are underway, and some agreements are already in place, to harmonize certification between countries, facilitating international trade. There are also international certification bodies, including members of the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) working on harmonization efforts. Where formal agreements do not exist between countries, organic product for export is often certified by agencies from the importing countries, who may establish permanent foreign offices for this purpose. In 2011 IFOAM introduced a new program - the IFOAM Family of Standards - that attempts to simplify harmonization. The vision is to establish the use of one single global reference (the COROS) to access the quality of standards rather than focusing on bilateral agreements. [10]

The Certcost was a research project that conducted research and prepared reports about the certification of organic food. [11] The project was supported by the European Commission and was active from 2008-2011. The website will be available until 2016. [12]

North America [ edit ]

United States of America [ edit ]

In the United States, “organic” is a labeling term for food or agricultural products (“food, feed or fiber”) that have been produced according to USDA organic regulations, which define standards that “integrate cultural, biological, and mechanical practices that foster cycling of resources, promote ecological balance, and conserve biodiversity.” USDA standards recognize four types of organic production:

Crops: “Plants that are grown to be harvested as food, livestock feed, or fiber used to add nutrients to the field.” Livestock: “Animals that can be used in the production of food, fiber, or feed.” Processed/multi-ingredient products: “Items that have been handled and packaged (e. g. chopped carrots) or combined, processed, and packaged (e. g. bread or soup).” Wild crops: “Plants from a growing site that is not cultivated.”

Organic agricultural operations should ultimately maintain or improve soil and water quality, and conserve wetlands, woodlands, and wildlife. [13]

In the U. S., the Organic Foods Production Act of 1990 "requires the Secretary of Agriculture to establish a National List of Allowed and Prohibited Substances which identifies synthetic substances that may be used, and the nonsynthetic substances that cannot be used, in organic production and handling operations." [14]

Also in the U. S., the Secretary of Agriculture promulgated regulations establishing the National Organic Program (NOP). The final rule was published in the Federal Register in 2000.

USDA Organic certification confirms that the farm or handling facility (whether within the United States or internationally) complies with USDA organic regulations. Farms or handling facilities can be certified by private, foreign, or State entities, whose agents are accredited by the USDA (accredited agents are listed on the USDA website). Any farm or business that grosses more than $5,000 annually in organic sales must be certified. Farms and businesses that make less than $5,000 annually are “exempt,” and must follow all the requirements as stated in the USDA regulations except for two requirements:

Exempt operations do not need to be certified to “sell, label, or represent” their products as organic, but may not use the USDA organic seal or label their products as “certified organic.” Exempt operations may pursue optional certification if they wish to use the USDA organic seal. Exempt operations are not required to have a system plan that documents the specific practices and substances used in the production or handling of their organic products.

Exempt operations are also barred from selling their products as ingredients for use in another producer or handler’s certified organic product, and may be required by buyers to sign an affidavit affirming adherence to USDA organic regulations. [13]

Before an operation may sell, label or represent their products as “organic” (or use the USDA organic seal), it must undergo a 3-year transition period where any land used to produce raw organic commodities must be left untreated with prohibited substances. [15]

Operations seeking certification must first submit an application for organic certification to a USDA-accredited certifying agent including the following: [13]

A detailed description of the operation seeking certification A history of substances used on the land over the prior 3 years A list of the organic products grown, raised, or processed A written “Organic System Plan (OSP)” which outlines the practices and substances intended for use during future organic production. Processors/handlers who are not primarily a farm (and farms with livestock and/or crops that also process products) must complete an Organic Handling Plan (OHP), and also include a product profile and label for each product.

Certifying agents then review the application to confirm that the operation’s practices follow USDA regulations, and schedule an inspection to verify adherence to the OSP, maintenance of records, and overall regulatory compliance [16]

Inspection The during the site visit, the inspector observes onsite practices and compares them to the OSP, looks for any potential contamination by prohibited materials (or any risk of potential contamination), and takes soil, tissue, or product samples as needed. At farming operations, the inspector will also examine the fields, water systems, storage areas, and equipment, assess pest and weed management, check feed production, purchase records, livestock and their living conditions, and records of animal health management practices. For processing and handling facilities, the inspector evaluates the receiving, processing, and storage areas for organic ingredients and finished products, as well as assessing any potential hazards or contamination points (from “sanitation systems, pest management materials, or nonorganic processing aids”). If the facility also processes or handles nonorganic materials, the inspector will also analyze the measures in place to prevent comingling. [13]

If the written application and operational inspection are successful, the certifying agent will issue an organic certificate to the applicant. The producer or handler must then submit an updated application and OSP, pay recertification fees to the agent, and undergo annual onsite inspections to receive recertification annually. Once certified, producers and handlers can have up to 75% of their organic certification costs reimbursed through the USDA Organic Certification Cost-Share Programs. [13]

Federal legislation defines three levels of organic foods. [17] Products made entirely with certified organic ingredients, methods, and processing aids can be labeled "100% organic" (including raw agricultural commodities that have been certified), while only products with at least 95% organic ingredients may be labeled "organic" (any non-organic ingredients used must fall under the exemptions of the National List). Under these two categories, no nonorganic agricultural ingredients are allowed when organic ingredients are available. Both of these categories may also display the "USDA Organic" seal, and must state the name of the certifying agent on the information panel. [18]

A third category, containing a minimum of 70% organic ingredients, can be labeled "made with organic ingredients," but may not display the USDA Organic seal. Any remaining agricultural ingredients must be produced without excluded methods, including genetic modification[14], irradiation, or the application of synthetic fertilizers, sewage sludge, or biosolids. Non-agricultural ingredients used must be allowed on the National List. Organic ingredients must be marked in the ingredients list (e. g., "organic dill" or with an asterisk denoting organic status). [19] In addition, products may also display the logo of the certification body that approved them. [20]

Products made with less than 70% organic ingredients can not be advertised as "organic," but can list individual ingredients that are organic as such in the product's ingredient statement. Also, USDA ingredients from plants cannot be genetically modified. [20]

Livestock feed is only eligible for labeling as “100% Organic” or “Organic." [21]

Alcoholic products are also subject to the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau regulations. Any use of added sulfites in wine made with organic grapes means that the product is only eligible for the “made with” labeling category and therefore may not use the USDA organic seal. Wine labeled as made with other organic fruit cannot have sulfites added to it. [22]

Organic textiles made be labeled organic and use the USDA organic seal if the finished product is certified organic and produced in full compliance with USDA organic regulations. If all of a specific fiber used in a product is certified organic, the label may state the percentage of organic fibers and identify the organic material. [23]

Organic certification mandates that the certifying inspector must be able to complete both “trace-back” and “mass balance audits” for all ingredients and products. A trace-back audit confirms the existence of a record trail from time of purchase/production through the final sale. A mass balance audit verifies that enough organic product and ingredients have been produced or purchased to match the amount of product sold. Each ingredient and product must have an assigned lot number to ensure the existence of a proper audit trail. [24]

Some of the earliest organizations to carry out organic certification in North America were the California Certified Organic Farmers, founded in 1973, and the voluntary standards and certification program popularized by the Rodale Press in 1972. [25] Some retailers have their stores certified as organic handlers and processors to ensure organic compliance is maintained throughout the supply chain until delivered to consumers, such as Vitamin Cottage Natural Grocers, a 60-year-old chain based in Colorado.

Violations of USDA Organic regulations carry fines up to $11,000 per violation, and can also lead to suspension or revocation of a farm or business’s organic certificate. [13]

Once certified, USDA organic products can be exported to countries currently engaged in organic trade agreements with the U. S., including Canada, the European Union, Japan, and Taiwan, and do not require additional certification as long as the terms of the agreement are met. [13]

Canada [ edit ]

In Canada, certification was implemented at the federal level on June 30, 2009. Mandatory certification is required for agricultural products represented as organic in import, export and inter-provincial trade, or that bear the federal organic logo. [26] In Quebec, provincial legislation provides government oversight of organic certification within the province, through the Quebec Accreditation Board ( Conseil D'Accréditation Du Québec ). Only products that use at least 95% organic materials in production are allowed to bear the Canadian organic logo. Products between 70-95% may declare they have xx% of organic ingredients, however they do not meet requirements to bear the certified logo. [27] Transitioning from a conventional agricultural operation to an organic operation takes the producers up to three years to receive organic certification, during which time products cannot be marketed as organic products, and producers will not receive pricing premiums on their goods during this time. [28] Cows, sheep, and goats are the only livestock that are allowed to be transitioned to organic, under Canada's regulations. They must undergo organic management for one year before their products can be considered certified organic. [29]

Europe [ edit ]

Public organic certification [ edit ]

EU countries acquired comprehensive organic legislation with the implementation of the EU-Eco-regulation 1992. Supervision of certification bodies is handled on the national level. In March 2002 the European Commission issued a EU-wide label for organic food. It has been mandatory throughout the EU since July 2010. [30] and has become compulsory after a two-year transition period. [31]

In 2009 a new logo was chosen through a design competition and online public vote. [32] [33] The new logo is a green rectangle that shows twelve stars (from the European flag) placed such that they form the shape of a leaf in the wind. Unlike earlier labels no words are presented on the label lifting the requirement for translations referring to organic food certification. [34]

The new EU organic label has been implemented since July 2010 and has replaced the old European Organic label. However, producers that have had already printed and ready to use packaging with the old label were allowed to use them in the upcoming 2 years. [35]

The development of the EU organic label was develop based on Denmark's organic food policy and the rules behind the Danish organic food label which at the moment holds the highest rate of recognition among its users in the world respectively 98% and 90% trust the label. The current EU organic label is meant to signal to the consumer that at least 95% of the ingredients used in the processed organic food is from organic origin and 5% considered an acceptable error margin. [36]

Private organic certification [ edit ]

Besides the public organic certification regulation EU-Eco-regulation in 1992, there are various private organic certifications available:

Demeter International is the largest certification organization for biodynamic agriculture, and is one of three predominant organic certifiers. [37] Demeter Biodynamic Certification is used in over 50 countries to verify that biodynamic products meet international standards in production and processing. [38] The Demeter certification program was established in 1928, and as such was the first ecological label for organically produced foods. [39] Bio Suisse established in 1981 is the Swiss organic farmer umbrella organization. International activities are mainly focused on imports towards Switzerland and don't support export activities. Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS) is a private standard for Organic clothing for the entire post-harvest processing (including spinning, knitting, weaving, dyeing and manufacturing) of apparel and home textiles made with organic fibres (such as organic cotton, organic wool etc.). It includes both environmental and social criteria. Established in 2002, the standard is used in over 68 countries [40] and is endorsed by USDA[41] and IFOAM. [42] The material must be at least 95% organic, as certified by “recognized international or national standards.” If the material is 70% organic, it can be labeled as “made with organic.” [43]

Czech Republic [ edit ]

Following private bodies certify organic produce: KEZ, o. p. s. (CZ-BIO-001), ABCert, AG (CZ-BIO-002) and BIOCONT CZ, s. r. o. (CZ-BIO-003). These bodies provide controlling of processes tied with issueing of certificate of origin. Controlling of compliancy (to (ES) no 882/2004 directive) is provided by government body ÚKZÚZ (Central Institute for Supervising and Testing in Agriculture)."9"| Source: "Information on organic produce of the Ministry of Agriculture of the Czech Republic"

France [ edit ]

In France, organic certification was introduced in 1985. It has established a green-white logo of "AB - agriculture biologique." The certification for the AB label fulfills the EU regulations for organic food. The certification process is overseen a public institute ("Agence française pour le développement et la promotion de l'agriculture biologique" usually shortended to "Agence bio") established in November 2001. The actual certification authorities include a number of different institutes like Aclave, Agrocert, Ecocert SA, Qualité France SA, Ulase, SGS ICS.

Germany [ edit ]

In Germany the national label was introduced in September 2001 following in the footsteps of the political campaign of "Agrarwende" ( agricultural major shift ) led by minister Renate Künast of the Greens party. This campaign was started after the outbreak of mad-cow disease in 2000. The effects on farming are still challenged by other political parties. The national "Bio"-label in its hexagon green-black-white shape has gained wide popularity - in 2007 there were 2431 companies having certified 41708 products. The popularity of the label is extending to neighbouring countries like Austria, Switzerland and France.

In the German-speaking countries there have been older non-government organizations that had issued labels for organic food long before the advent of the EU organic food regulations. Their labels are still used widely as they significantly exceed the requirements of the EU regulations. An organic food label like "demeter" from Demeter International has been in use since 1928 [44] and this label is still regarded as providing the highest standards for organic food in the world. [ citation needed ] Other active NGOs include Bioland (1971), Biokreis (1979), Biopark (1991), Ecoland (1997), Ecovin (1985), Gäa e. V. (1989), Naturland (1981) and Bio Suisse (1981).

Greece [ edit ]

In Greece, organic certification is available from eight (8) organizations approved by EU. [45] The major of them are BIOHELLAS and the DIO (Greek: Οργανισμός Ελέγχου και Πιστοποίησης Βιολογικών Προϊόντων - ΔΗΩ )[1]

Ireland [ edit ]

In Ireland, organic certification is available from the Irish Organic Farmers and Growers Association, Demeter Standards Ltd. and Organic Trust Ltd.

Switzerland [ edit ]

In Switzerland, products sold as organic must comply at a minimum with the Swiss organic regulation (Regulation 910.18). [46] Higher standards are required before a product can be labelled with the Bio Suisse label. [47]

Sweden [ edit ]

In Sweden, organic certification is handled by the organisation KRAV (agriculture) with members such as farmers, processors, trade and also consumer, environmental and animal welfare interests. [48]

United Kingdom [ edit ]

In the United Kingdom, organic certification is handled by a number of organizations, regulated by The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), of which the largest are the Soil Association and Organic Farmers and Growers. While UK certification bodies are required to meet the EU minimum organic standards for all member states; they may choose to certify to standards that exceed the minimums, as is the case with the Soil Association. [49] [50]

The farmland converted to produce certified organic food has seen a significant evolution in the EU15 countries, rising from 1.8% in 1998 to 4.1% in 2005. For the current EU25 countries however the statistics report an overall percentage of just 1.5% as of 2005. However the statistics showed a larger turnover of organic food in some countries, reaching 10% in France and 14% in Germany. In France 21% of available vegetables, fruits, milk and eggs were certified as organic. Numbers for 2010 show that 5.4% of German farmland has been converted to produce certified organic food, as has 10.4% of Swiss farmland and 11.7% of Austrian farmland. [51] Non-EU countries have widely adopted the European certification regulations for organic food, to increase export to EU countries.

Asia and Oceania [ edit ]

Australia [ edit ]

In Australia, organic certification is performed by several organisations that are accredited by the Biosecurity [52] section of the Department of Agriculture (Australia), formerly the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service, under the National Standard for Organic and Biodynamic Produce. [53] All claims about the organic status of products sold in Australia are covered under the Competition and Consumer Act 2010. [54]

In Australia, the Organic Federation of Australia is the peak body for the organic industry in Australia [55] and is part of the government's Organic Consultative Committee Legislative Working Group that sets organic standards. [56]

Department of Agriculture accreditation is a legal requirement for all organic products exported from Australia. [53] Export Control (Organic Produce Certification) Orders are used by the Department to assess organic certifying bodies and recognise them as approved certifying organisations. Approved certifying organisations are assessed by the Department for both initial recognition and on an at least annual basis thereafter to verify compliance. [57]

In the absence of domestic regulation, DOA accreditation also serves as a 'de facto' benchmark for certified product sold on the domestic market. [58] Despite its size and growing share of the economy "the organic industry in Australia remains largely self-governed. There is no specific legislation for domestic organic food standardisation and labelling at the state or federal level as there is in the USA and the EU". [59]

Australian approved certifying organisations [ edit ]

The Department has several approved certifying organisations that manage the certification process of organic and bio-dynamic operators in Australia. These certifying organisations perform a number of functions on the Department's behalf: [60]

Assess organic and bio-dynamic operators to determine compliance to the National Standard for Organic and Bio-Dynamic Produce [61] and importing country requirements. Issue a Quality Management Certificate (QM Certificate) to organic operators to recognise compliance to export requirements. Issue Organic Produce Certificates (Export Documentation) for consignments of organic and bio-dynamic produce being exported.

As of 2015, there are seven approved certifying organisations: [62]

AUS-QUAL Pty Ltd (AUSQUAL) Australian Certified Organic (ACO) Bio-Dynamic Research Institute (BDRI) NASAA Certified Organic (NCO) Organic Food Chain (OFC) Safe Food Production Queensland (SFQ) Tasmanian Organic-dynamic Producers (TOP)

There are 2567 certified organic businesses reported in Australia in 2014. They include 1707 primary producers, 719 processors and manufacturers, 141 wholesalers and retailers plus other operators. [63]

Australia does not have a logo or seal to identify which products are certified organic, instead the logos of the individual certifying organisations are used. [53] [64]

China [ edit ]

In China, the organic certification is administered by a government agency named Certification and Accreditation Administration of the People’s Republic of China (CNCA). While the implementation of certification works, including site checking, lab test on soil, water, product qualities are performed by the China Quality Certification Center (CQC) which is an agency of Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine (AQSIQ).The organic certification procedures in china are performed according to China Organic Standard GB/T 19630.1-4—2011 which was issued in year 2011. This standard has governed standard procedure for Organic certification process performed by CQC, including application, inspection, lab test procedures, certification decision and post certification administration. The certificate issued by CQC are valid for 1 year.

There are 2 logos that are currently used by the CQC for labeling products with Organic Certification, these are the Organic Logo and CQC Logo. No conversion to organic Logo now.

There were more than 19000 valid certificates and 66 organic certification bodies until 2018 in China. [ citation needed ]

India [ edit ]

In India, APEDA regulates the certification of organic products as per National Standards for Organic Production. "The NPOP standards for production and accreditation system have been recognized by European Commission and Switzerland as equivalent to their country standards. Similarly, USDA has recognized NPOP conformity assessment procedures of accreditation as equivalent to that of US. With these recognitions, Indian organic products duly certified by the accredited certification bodies of India are accepted by the importing countries." [65] Organic food products manufactured and exported from India are marked with the India Organic certification mark issued by the APEDA. [66] APEDA has recognized 11 inspection certification bodies, some of which are branches of foreign certification bodies, others are local certification bodies.

Japan [ edit ]

In Japan, the Japanese Agricultural Standard (JAS) was fully implemented as law in April 2001. This was revised in November 2005 and all JAS certifiers were required to be re-accredited by the Ministry of Agriculture. [67]

Singapore [ edit ]

As of 2014 the Agri-Food & Veterinary Authority of Singapore had no organic certification process, but instead relied on international certification bodies; it does not track local producers who claim to have gotten organic certification. [68]

Cambodia [ edit ]

In Cambodia, Cambodian Organic Agriculture Association (COrAA) is the only organization that is authorized to give certificate for organic agricultural products. It is a nationwide private organization working for the promotion of organic and sustainable agriculture in Cambodia. COrAA has developed both organic and chemical-free agricultural standards and provides third-party-certification to producers following these standards. In addition, the services that COrAA provides include technical training for the conversion from chemical/conventional to organic farming, marketing support, organic awareness building among the general public, and a platform for dialogue and cooperation among organic stakeholders in Cambodia.

Issues [ edit ]

Organic certification is not without its critics. Some of the staunchest opponents of chemical-based farming and factory farming practices also oppose formal certification. They see it as a way to drive independent organic farmers out of business, and to undermine the quality of organic food. [69] Other organizations such as the Organic Trade Association work within the organic community to foster awareness of legislative and other related issues, and enable the influence and participation of organic proponents.

Obstacles to small independent producers [ edit ]

Originally, in the 1960s through the 1980s, the organic food industry was composed of mainly small, independent farmers, selling locally. Organic "certification" was a matter of trust, based on a direct relationship between farmer and consumer. Critics [70] view regulatory certification as a potential barrier to entry for small producers, by burdening them with increased costs, [71] paperwork, and bureaucracy [72]

In China, due to government regulations, international companies wishing to market organic produce must be independently certified. It is reported that "Australian food producers are spending up to $50,000 to be certified organic by Chinese authorities to crack the burgeoning middle-class market of the Asian superpower." [73] Whilst the certification process is described by producers "extremely difficult and very expensive", a number of organic producers have acknowledged the ultimately positive effect of gaining access to the emerging Chinese market. For example, figures from Australian organic infant formula and baby food producer Bellamy's Organic indicate export growth, to China alone, of 70 per cent per year since gaining Chinese certification in 2008, [73] while similar producers have shown export growth of 20 per cent to 30 per cent a year following certification [74]

Peak Australian organic certification body, Australian Certified Organic, has stated however that "many companies have baulked at risking the money because of the complex, unwieldy and expensive process to earn Chinese certification." [73] By comparison, equivalent certification costs in Australia are less than $2,000 (AUD), [75] with costs in the United States as low as $750 (USD) for a similarly sized business. [76]

Manipulative use of regulations [ edit ]

Manipulation of certification regulations as a way to mislead or outright dupe the public is a very real concern. Some examples are creating exceptions (allowing non-organic inputs to be used without loss of certification status) and creative interpretation of standards to meet the letter, but not the intention, of particular rules. For example, a complaint filed with the USDA in February 2004 against Bayliss Ranch, a food ingredient producer and its certifying agent, charged that tap water had been certified organic, and advertised for use in a variety of water-based body care and food products, in order to label them "organic" under US law. Steam-distilled plant extracts, consisting mainly of tap water introduced during the distilling process, were certified organic, and promoted as an organic base that could then be used in a claim of organic content. The case was dismissed by the USDA, as the products had been actually used only in personal care products, over which the department at the time extended no labeling control. The company subsequently adjusted its marketing by removing reference to use of the extracts in food products.

In 2013 the Australia Consumer Competition Commission said that water can no longer be labelled as organic water because, based on organic standards, water cannot be organic and it is misleading and deceptive to label any water as such. [77]

False assurance of quality [ edit ]

The label itself can be used to mislead many customers that food labelled as being organic is safer, healthier and more nutritious. [78] [79] [80] [81] [82] [83] [84]

Erosion of standards [ edit ]

Critics of formal certification also fear an erosion of organic standards. Provided with a legal framework within which to operate, lobbyists can push for amendments and exceptions favorable to large-scale production, resulting in "legally organic" products produced in ways similar to current conventional food. [85] Combined with the fact that organic products are now sold predominantly through high volume distribution channels such as supermarkets, the concern is that the market is evolving to favor the biggest producers, and this could result in the small organic farmer being squeezed out.

In the United States large food companies, have "assumed a powerful role in setting the standards for organic foods." [86] Many members of standard-setting boards come from large food corporations. [86] As more corporate members have joined, many nonorganic substances have been added to the National List of acceptable ingredients. [86] The United States Congress has also played a role in allowing exceptions to organic food standards. In December 2005, the 2006 agricultural appropriations bill was passed with a rider allowing 38 synthetic ingredients to be used in organic foods, including food colorings, starches, sausage and hot-dog casings, hops, fish oil, chipotle chili pepper, and gelatin; this allowed Anheuser-Busch in 2007 to have its Wild Hop Lager certified organic "even though [it] uses hops grown with chemical fertilizers and sprayed with pesticides." [87] [88]

See also [ edit ]

References [ edit ]

Citations and notes [ edit ]

^ "EPA Definition of certified organic". & # 160; ^ "Pestcides in Organic Farming". University of California, Berkeley . Retrieved 2014-06-17 . Organic foods are not necessarily pesticide-free. Organic foods are produced using only certain pesticides with specific ingredients. Organic pesticides tend to have natural substances like soaps, lime sulfur and hydrogen peroxide as ingredients. Not all natural substances are allowed in organic agriculture; some chemicals like arsenic, strychnine and tobacco dust (nicotine sulfate) are prohibited. . & # 160; ^ "FAQ: Becoming a Certified Operation". United States Department of Agriculture: Agricultural Marketing Service . Retrieved 4 November 2014 . & # 160; ^ ifoam/about_ifoam/pdfs/PGS_PDFs/Studies_Book_Web_20091030ILB. pdf ^ CAP2020 - Organic Farmin in Brazil - Participatory Certification and Local Markets for Sustainable Agricultural Development ^ [Certified Naturally Grown]. Retrieved 4-Mar-2006. ^ S. Setboonsarng. “Can Ethical Trade Certification Contribute to the Attainment of the Millennium Development Goals? A Review of Organic and Fair-trade Certification.” In Organic Agriculture and Post-2015 Development Goals: Building on the Comparative Advantage of Poor Farmers. Ed. Setboonsarng, S. and A. Markandya. pp. 79-103. 2015. Manila: ADB. adb/sites/default/files/publication/161042/organic-agriculture-and-post-2015-development-goals. ^ Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures World Trade Organization. Accessed 3 September 2008. ^ Understanding the Codex Alimentarius [ permanent dead link ] Preface. Third Edition. Published in 2006 by the World Health Organization and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Accessed 3 September 2008. ^ "IFOAM Family of Standards". IFOAM. Archived from the original on 2012-06-02. & # 160; ^ "FiBL project Economic analysis of certification systems for organic food and farming". Research Institute of Organic Agriculture . Retrieved 30 October 2015 . & # 160; ^ "Public project results". CertCost . Retrieved 30 October 2015 . & # 160; ^ a b c d e f g Baier, Ann; Ahramijian, Lisa. "Organic Certification of Farms and Businesses Producing Agricultural Products". ATTRA - A National Sustainable Agriculture Assistance Program . National Center for Appropriate Technology . Retrieved 21 February 2016 . & # 160; ^ Text copied from "National List of Allowed and Prohibited Substances". Agricultural Marketing Service . Retrieved 15 June 2011 . & # 160; ^ "Guidelines for Organic Processing and Handling" (PDF) . Maine Organic Farmers and Gardeners Association Certification Services . Maine Organic Farmers and Gardeners Association . Retrieved 21 February 2016 . & # 160; ^ "Guidelines for Organic Processing and Handling" (PDF) . Maine Organic Farmers and Gardeners Association Certification Services . Maine Organic Farmers and Gardeners Association . Retrieved 21 February 2016 . & # 160; ^ "Labeling organic products". U. S. Department of Agriculture. October 2012 . Retrieved 3 April 2013 . & # 160; ^ "Labeling Organic Products" (PDF) . United States Department of Agriculture . USDA Agricultural Marketing Service . Retrieved 21 February 2016 . & # 160; ^ "Labeling Organic Products" (PDF) . United States Department of Agriculture . USDA Agricultural Marketing Service . Retrieved 21 February 2016 . & # 160; ^ a b "Organic Agriculture". USDA. & # 160; ^ "Guidelines for Organic Processing and Handling" (PDF) . Maine Organic Farmers and Gardeners Association Certification Services . Maine Organic Farmers and Gardeners Association . Retrieved 21 February 2016 . & # 160; ^ "Labeling Organic Products" (PDF) . United States Department of Agriculture . USDA Agricultural Marketing Service . Retrieved 21 February 2016 . & # 160; ^ "Labeling Organic Products" (PDF) . United States Department of Agriculture . USDA Agricultural Marketing Service . Retrieved 21 February 2016 . & # 160; ^ "Labeling Organic Products" (PDF) . United States Department of Agriculture . USDA Agricultural Marketing Service . Retrieved 21 February 2016 . & # 160; ^ Parlet, Aubrey (2009). "Organic Foods Production: What Consumers Might Not Know about the Use of Synthetic Substances". Loyola Consumer Law Review . 21 (3): 395 . Retrieved 21 February 2016 . & # 160; ^ Organic Food and Farming Certification Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (OMAFRA). May 1, 2002. ^ "FAQs | Canada's rules for organic food". CBC News . Retrieved 2016-12-02 . & # 160; ^ "Certified Organic". The Organic Council of Ontario . Retrieved 2016-12-02 . & # 160; ^ Beavers et. al, Roxanne. "First Steps to Certified Organic Livestock Production" (PDF) . Atlantic Canadian Organic Regional Network . Retrieved December 1, 2016 . & # 160; ^ Commission Regulation (EC) No 889/2008 of 5 September 2008 laying down detailed rules for the implementation of Council Regulation (EC) No 834/2007 on organic production and labeling of organic products with regard to organic production, labeling and control ^ EU Organic Logo now Compulsory, Nathan Gray (2 July 2012) ^ European Commission » Agriculture and Rural Development » Organic Farming: Questions and Answers ^ link EU organic logo vote ^ Organic Farming - Logo, European Commission Agriculture and Rural Development (n. d.) ^ Tews, K, P-O Busch, and H Jörgens. "The diffusion of new environmental policy instruments." European Journal of Political Research 42 (2003): 569-600 ^ Van Loo, E L, M. N. H Diem, Z Pieniak, and W Verbeke. "Consumer attitudes, knowledge, and consumption of organic yogurt." Journal of Dairy Science (American Dairy ScienceAssociation ) 96 (December 2012): 2118-2129 ^ Commission for Environmental Cooperation and TerraChoice Environmental Services Inc, Environmental and Other Labelling of Coffee: the role of mutual recognition, supporting cooperative action , May 2004. Document text ^ Demeter certification in New Zealand ^ Steve Diver, Biodynamic Farming & Compost Preparation , Alternative Farming Systems Guide: ATTRA, February 1999. Document text ^ "GOTS Annual Report 2015" (PDF) . global-standard . Global Standard gGmbH . Retrieved 2017-01-24 . & # 160; ^ "USDA Policy Memo on Organic Textiles" (PDF) . USDA. 2011-05-20 . Retrieved 24 Jan 2017 . & # 160; ^ "IFOAM position on the Global Organic Textile Standard | IFOAM". ifoam. bio . Retrieved 2017-01-24 . & # 160; ^ "What does GOTS Certified Mean". modernrascals. ca . Retrieved 2017-02-01 . & # 160; ^ demeter-usa/, Demeter USA. "Demeter History - Demeter USA". demeter-usa . Retrieved 2017-06-28 . & # 160; ^ List of bodies or public authorities in charge of inspection provided for in Article 15 of Council Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91 ^ "Ordinance on Organic Farming and the Labelling of Organically Produced Products and Foodstuffs". & # 160; |accessdate=5 August 2015 ^ "Organic certification labels from the perspective of consumers in Switzerland" (PDF) . Retrieved 5 August 2015 . & # 160; ^ Welcome to KRAV - krav. se ^ "Soil Association: Organic certification". Soil Association . Retrieved 2 April 2015 . & # 160; "Our standards not only meet the UK government's minimum requirements but exceed them – especially in areas concerning the environment and animal welfare. We have also developed standards for areas not covered by government or EU regulations. These include conservation, fish farming, textiles and health and beauty care products." ^ In Organic certification and standards, the UK government indicates: "Organic control bodies (CBs) license individual organic operators. Although EU member states cannot set higher organic standards (OS) than those in force for the EU as a whole, CBs can." ^ EU-Biosiegel mit Kontrollen und Codeangaben nano, 3sat, 1. July 2010 ^ Biosecurity Section official website ^ a b c "NATIONAL STANDARD FOR ORGANIC AND BIO-DYNAMIC PRODUCE" (PDF) . agriculture. gov. au . Department of Agriculture . Retrieved 4 March 2015 . & # 160; External link in |website= (help) ^ "Australian Competition and Consumer Act". austlii. edu. au . Commonwealth of Australia . Retrieved 26 February 2015 . & # 160; External link in |website= (help) ^ Government of Australia, Dept. of Agriculture ^ Organic Consultative Committee Legislative Working Group ^ "Approved Certifying Organisations". agriculture. gov. au/ . Department of Agriculture . Retrieved 26 February 2015 . & # 160; External link in |website= (help) ^ "2005 WORLD TRADE REPORT Exploring the links between trade, standards and the WTO" (PDF) . wto/ . World Trade Organisation . Retrieved 4 March 2015 . & # 160; External link in |website= (help) ^ Hall, Stephen (26 September 2007). Australia’s organic trilemma: public versus private organic food standardisation (PDF) . Australasian Political Studies Association . Retrieved 4 March 2015 . & # 160; ^ "Approved Certifying Organisations". agriculture. gov. au/biosecurity/ . Department of Agriculture . Retrieved 26 February 2015 . & # 160; External link in |website= (help) ^ National Standard for Organic and Bio-Dynamic Produce ^ "Department of Agriculture Organic Approved Certifying Organisations". agriculture. gov. au . Department of Agriculture . Retrieved 26 February 2015 . & # 160; External link in |website= (help) ^ "Australian Organic Market Report, 2014" (PDF) . horticulture. au/ . Horticulture Australia . Retrieved 26 February 2015 . & # 160; External link in |website= (help) ^ Lovitt, Ben. "Why are there 7 different logos for organic certification in Australia?". bellamysorganic. au . Bellamy's Organic . Retrieved 26 February 2015 . & # 160; External link in |website= (help) ^ apeda. gov. in/apedawebsite/organic/index. htm ^ Spices Board of India. 'Organic certification mark'. ^ JAS Standards ^ Susan Long for The Straits Times. Apr 15, 2014 The accidental organic farmer ^ Omnivore's Dilemma ^ Meirelles, Laércio. "Certification of Organic Products". Central Ecologico . Retrieved 1 September 2011 . & # 160; ^ "National import regulations and the fact that the international certification bodies charge high fees for assessing and certifying farmers tend to drive development towards agribusiness, with plantations run by major multinational companies. Therefore a more local system for trade in farm products and their certification brings a range of advantages for farmers(. )." naturskyddsforeningen. se/upload/Foreningsdokument/Rapporter/engelska/organic-farming-in-brazil. pdf ^ Ifad. (2003) The Adoption of Organic Agriculture Among Small Farmers in Latin America and the Caribbean. Thematic Evaluation. ifad/evaluation/public_html/eksyst/doc/agreement/pl/organic. htm#1. ^ a b c Han, Esther (November 17, 2013). "Organic food: Companies pay $50,000 for Chinese certification". Good Food . Retrieved 27 March 2014 . & # 160; ^ "Organic exports to China on the rise". Dynamic Export . Retrieved 14 April 2014 . & # 160; ^ austorganic/australian-certified-organic-standard1/. & # 160; Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ "Organic Agriculture - certification costs" . Retrieved 27 March 2014 . & # 160; ^ Davidson, Helen (16 July 2013). "Water cannot be organic, ACCC says". The Guardian . Londres. & # 160; ^ Blair, Robert. (2012). Organic Production and Food Quality: A Down to Earth Analysis. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, UK. ISBN 978-0-8138-1217-5 ^ Magkos F et al (2006) Organic food: buying more safety or just peace of mind? A critical review of the literature Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 46(1): 23–56 PMID 16403682Archived June 26, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. ^ Bourn D, Prescott J (January 2002). "A comparison of the nutritional value, sensory qualities, and food safety of organically and conventionally produced foods". Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr . 42 (1): 1–34. doi:10.1080/10408690290825439. PMID 11833635. & # 160; ^ Smith-Spangler, C; Brandeau, ML; Hunter, GE; Bavinger, JC; Pearson, M; Eschbach, PJ; Sundaram, V; Liu, H; Schirmer, P; Stave, C; Olkin, I; Bravata, DM (September 4, 2012). "Are organic foods safer or healthier than conventional alternatives?: a systematic review". Annals of Internal Medicine . 157 (5): 348–366. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-157-5-201209040-00007. PMID 22944875. & # 160; ^ Dangour AD et al (2009) Nutritional quality of organic foods: a systematic review The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 92(1):203–210 ^ "Organic food". UK Food Standards Agency. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011.   ^ Williams, Christine M. (February 2002). "Nutritional quality of organic food: shades of grey or shades of green?" (PDF) . Proceedings of the Nutrition Society . 61 (1): 19–24. doi:10.1079/PNS2001126. & # 160; ^ "Purity of Federal 'Organic' Label Is Questioned" article by Kimberly Kindy and Lyndsey Layton in The Washington Post July 3, 2009 ^ a b c Strom, Stephanie (July 7, 2012). "Has 'Organic' Been Oversized?". O jornal New York Times . Retrieved August 14, 2012 . & # 160; ^ Lipson, Elaine (April 2008). "Congress acts to amend organic foods law". Natural Foods Merchandiser . XXVI (12): 1, 9.   The always-current list is at: US Electronic Code of Federal Regulations: Title 7 → Subtitle B → Chapter I → Subchapter M → Part 205 → Subpart G - The National List of Allowed and Prohibited Substances ^ Wilson, Scott J. (10 June 2007). " " Organic" food rule could have up to 38 loopholes". Seattle Times . Retrieved 2 April 2015 . & # 160;

General [ edit ]

Agricultural Marketing Service, USDA National Organic Program: Final Rule (7 CFR Part 205; Federal Register, Vol. 65, No. 246, 21 December 2000) OCPP/Pro-Cert Canada Organic Agriculture & Food Standard (OC/PRO IS 350/150) The Australian Organic Industry: A Profile, 2004, [2] (pdf) European Commission: Organic Farming Organic Council of Ontario (Canada)

External links [ edit ]

Organic Standards Database to compare the EU regulation on organic farming, the National Organic Program (NOP) of the US and the guidelines for the production, processing, labeling and marketing of organically produced food of the Codex Alimentarius Organic Standards Database to compare the EU regulation on organic farming with other countries standards. PGS India - Decentralized Organic Farming Certification System.

1. National Organic Program – In the United States, the National Organic Program is the federal regulatory framework governing organic food. It is also the name of the program of the United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Marketing Service responsible for administering and enforcing the regulatory framework. F. R, the core mission of the NOP is to protect the integrity of the USDA organic seal. The NOP covers fresh and processed food products, including crops. It does cover non-food products that may be sold as organic, health and beauty products can also be labeled organic if compliant with NOP. While the actual law does apply to products, enforcement remains limited in this market. Regulations of the NOP also do not address issues of nutrition or food safety, the National Organic Program grew from fewer than twelve total employees in 2008 to approximately 45 in 2015. As of April 2011, it operates in three divisions in addition to the Office of Deputy Administrator, Standards, Accreditation and International Activities, under this act, the Secretary of Agriculture promulgated regulations establishing the National Organic Program in 2000. It restricts the use of the organic to certified organic producers. Certification is handled by state, non-profit and private agencies that have approved by the USDA. NOP regulations cover in all aspects of food production, processing, delivery. Under the NOP, farmers and food processors who wish to use the organic in reference to their businesses and products. Producers with annual sales not exceeding US$5,000 are exempted, products labeled “100 percent organic, ” “organic, ” or “made with organic ingredients” must adhere to the Organic Production and Handling Requirements outlined in the regulation 7 CFR Part 205. A USDA Organic seal identifies raw, fresh, and processed products with at least 95% organic ingredients, a product that has not been certified organic by a USDA-authorized certifying agent may not bear the USDA organic seal. Products containing at least 70 percent organically produced ingredients may include a “Made with Organic” label to specify up to three ingredients or ingredient categories and they can not use the USDA organic seal or represent that the finished product is organic. Misuse of the USDA Organic seal on a product may lead to USDA compliance and enforcement actions, misuse may also lead to the suspension or revocation of the violators organic certificate. Beginning in 2009, the NOP implemented an international organic equivalency agreement with Canada, in 2012 they entered an agreement with the European Union, and in 2014 with Japan and Korea. These agreements streamline certification requirements and increase access to new market opportunities, as of 2015, there are 80 USDA Accredited Certifying Agents who are accredited and authorized by the USDA to certify organic operations as in compliance with USDA organic standards. Of these,48 are based in the U. S. and 32 are based in foreign countries, most certifying agents are directly accredited by the USDA National Organic Program.

2. USDA – Approximately 80% of USDAs $140 billion budget goes to the Food and Nutrition Service program. The largest component of the FNS budget is the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, after the resignation of Thomas Vilsack on January 13,2017 and the departure of President Barack Obama from office on January 20,2017, the acting Secretary of Agriculture is Michael Young. Activities in this include the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, which provides healthy food to over 40 million low-income. The USDA also is concerned with assisting farmers and food producers with the sale of crops and it plays a role in overseas aid programs by providing surplus foods to developing countries. This aid can go through USAID, foreign governments, international bodies such as World Food Program, the Agricultural Act of 1949, section 416 and Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, also known as Food for Peace, provides the legal basis of such actions. The USDA is a partner of the World Cocoa Foundation, early in its history, the economy of the United States was largely agrarian. Officials in the government had long sought new and improved varieties of seeds, plants. In 1837 Henry Leavitt Ellsworth, a Yale-educated attorney interested in improving agriculture, became Commissioner of Patents and he began collecting and distributing new varieties of seeds and plants through members of the Congress and agricultural societies. In 1839, Congress established the Agricultural Division within the Patent Office and allotted $1,000 for the collection of agricultural statistics, Ellsworth was called the Father of the Department of Agriculture. In 1849, the Patent Office was transferred to the newly created Department of the Interior, in the ensuing years, agitation for a separate bureau of agriculture within the department or a separate department devoted to agriculture kept recurring. Lincoln called it the peoples department, in the 1880s, varied advocacy groups were lobbying for Cabinet representation. Business interests sought a Department of Commerce and Industry, and farmers tried to raise the Department of Agriculture to Cabinet rank, finally, on February 9,1889, President Grover Cleveland signed a bill into law elevating the Department of Agriculture to Cabinet level. In 1887, the Hatch Act provided for the funding of agricultural experiment stations in each state. The Smith-Lever Act of 1914 then funded cooperative extension services in each state to teach agriculture, home economics, with these and similar provisions, the USDA reached out to every county of every state. During the Great Depression, farming remained a way of life for millions of Americans. The Department of Agricultures Bureau of Home Economics, established in 1923, published shopping advice and recipes to stretch family budgets and make food go farther. USDA helped ensure that continued to be produced and distributed to those who needed it, assisted with loans for small landowners. The Department of Agriculture was authorized a budget for Fiscal Year 2015 of $139.7 billion, the Washington Post reports that he said There are days when I have literally nothing to do, he recalled thinking as he weighed his decision to quit.

3. Organic food – Organic food is food produced by methods that comply with the standards of organic farming. Standards vary worldwide, but organic farming in general features practices that strive to cycle resources, promote ecological balance, organizations regulating organic products may restrict the use of certain pesticides and fertilizers in farming. In general, organic foods are usually not processed using irradiation. In the context of regulations, organic food is produced in a way that complies with organic standards set by regional organizations, national governments. There is not sufficient evidence in literature to support claims that organic food is safer or healthier than conventionally grown food. Claims that organic food tastes better are generally not supported by evidence, the organic farming movement arose in the 1940s in response to the industrialization of agriculture. Their respective use affects humus content of soil and this is different from the scientific use of the term organic in chemistry, which refers to a class of molecules that contain carbon, especially those involved in the chemistry of life. Properly used in agricultural science context, organic refers to the methods grown and processed. Early consumers interested in food would look for non-chemically treated, non-use of unapproved pesticides. They mostly had to buy directly from growers, later, Know your farmer, know your food became the motto of a new initiative instituted by the USDA in September 2009. Personal definitions of what constituted organic were developed through experience, by talking to farmers, seeing farm conditions. Small farms grew vegetables using organic farming practices, with or without certification, small specialty health food stores and co-operatives were instrumental to bringing organic food to a wider audience. As demand for organic foods continued to increase, high volume sales through mass outlets such as supermarkets rapidly replaced the direct farmer connection, today, many large corporate farms have an organic division. However, for consumers, food production is not easily observable. Government regulations and third-party inspectors are looked to for assurance, Organic food production is a self-regulated industry with government oversight in some countries, distinct from private gardening. If livestock are involved, the livestock must be reared with regular access to pasture, processed organic food usually contains only organic ingredients. If non-organic ingredients are present, at least a certain percentage of the total plant. Pesticides are allowed as long as they are not synthetic, several groups have called for organic standards to prohibit nanotechnology on the basis of the precautionary principle in light of unknown risks of nanotechnology.

4. Agriculture – Agriculture is the cultivation and breeding of animals, plants and fungi for food, fiber, biofuel, medicinal plants and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of human civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science, the history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture farming has become the dominant agricultural methodology, genetically modified organisms are an increasing component of agriculture, although they are banned in several countries. Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts, the major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, oils, meats, fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo, other useful materials are also produced by plants, such as resins, dyes, drugs, perfumes, biofuels and ornamental products such as cut flowers and nursery plants. The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from ager, field, Agriculture usually refers to human activities, although it is also observed in certain species of ant, termite and ambrosia beetle. To practice agriculture means to use resources to produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops. This definition includes arable farming or agronomy, and horticulture, all terms for the growing of plants, even then, it is acknowledged that there is a large amount of knowledge transfer and overlap between silviculture and agriculture. In traditional farming, the two are often combined even on small landholdings, leading to the term agroforestry, Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin, wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago. Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 15,000 years ago, rice was domesticated in China between 13,500 and 8,200 years ago, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago. From around 11,500 years ago, the eight Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant. Cattle were domesticated from the aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey. In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago, cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago, and was independently domesticated in Eurasia at an unknown time.

5. Business – A business is an organizational entity involved in the provision of goods and services to consumers. Businesses may also be social non-profit enterprises or state-owned public enterprises operated by governments with specific social, a business owned by multiple private individuals may form as an incorporated company or jointly organise as a partnership. Countries have different laws that may ascribe different rights to the business entities. The word business can refer to an organization or to an entire market sector or to the sum of all economic activity. Compound forms such as agribusiness represent subsets of the broader meaning. Businesses aim to maximize sales to have their income exceed their expenditures, resulting in a profit, the owner operates the business alone and may hire employees. A sole proprietor has unlimited liability for all obligations incurred by the business, partnership, A partnership is a business owned by two or more people. In most forms of partnerships, each partner has unlimited liability for the debts incurred by the business, the three most prevalent types of for-profit partnerships are, general partnerships, limited partnerships, and limited liability partnerships. Corporation, The owners of a corporation have limited liability and the business has a legal personality from its owners. Corporations can be either government-owned or privately owned and they can organize either for profit or as nonprofit organizations. A privately owned, for-profit corporation is owned by its shareholders, a privately owned, for-profit corporation can be either privately held by a small group of individuals, or publicly held, with publicly traded shares listed on a stock exchange. Cooperative, Often referred to as a co-op, a cooperative is a limited-liability business that can organize as for-profit or not-for-profit, a cooperative differs from a corporation in that it has members, not shareholders, and they share decision-making authority. Cooperatives are typically classified as either consumer cooperatives or worker cooperatives, cooperatives are fundamental to the ideology of economic democracy. In contrast, unincorporated businesses or persons working on their own are not as protected. Franchises, A franchise is a system in which entrepreneurs purchase the rights to open, franchising in the United States is widespread and is a major economic powerhouse. One out of retail businesses in the United States are franchised and 8 million people are employed in a franchised business. Real estate businesses sell, invest, construct and develop properties – including land, residential homes, retailers, wholesalers, and distributors act as middlemen and get goods produced by manufacturers to the intended consumers, they make their profits by marking up their prices. Most stores and catalog companies are distributors or retailers, transportation businesses such as railways, airlines, shipping companies that deliver goods and individuals to their destinations for a fee.

6. Seed – A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering. The formation of the seed is part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, Seeds are the product of the ripened ovule, after fertilization by pollen and some growth within the mother plant. The embryo is developed from the zygote and the coat from the integuments of the ovule. Seed plants now dominate biological niches on land, from forests to both in hot and cold climates. The term seed also has a meaning that antedates the above—anything that can be sown, e. g. seed potatoes. In the case of sunflower and corn seeds, what is sown is the seed enclosed in a shell or husk, many structures commonly referred to as seeds are actually dry fruits. Plants producing berries are called baccate, sunflower seeds are sometimes sold commercially while still enclosed within the hard wall of the fruit, which must be split open to reach the seed. Different groups of plants have other modifications, the stone fruits have a hardened fruit layer fused to. Nuts are the one-seeded, hard-shelled fruit of plants with an indehiscent seed. Seeds are produced in several related groups of plants, and their manner of production distinguishes the angiosperms from the gymnosperms, angiosperm seeds are produced in a hard or fleshy structure called a fruit that encloses the seeds, hence the name. Some fruits have layers of hard and fleshy material. In gymnosperms, no special structure develops to enclose the seeds, however, the seeds do become covered by the cone scales as they develop in some species of conifer. Seed production in natural plant populations varies widely from year-to-year in response to weather variables, insects and diseases, over a 20-year period, for example, forests composed of loblolly pine and shortleaf pine produced from 0 to nearly 5 million sound pine seeds per hectare. Over this period, there were six bumper, five poor, and nine good seed crops, right after fertilization, the zygote is mostly inactive, but the primary endosperm divides rapidly to form the endosperm tissue. This tissue becomes the food the young plant will consume until the roots have developed after germination, after fertilization the ovules develop into the seeds. The ovule consists of a number of components, The funicle or seed stalk which attaches the ovule to the placenta and hence ovary or fruit wall, the nucellus, the remnant of the megasporangium and main region of the ovule where the megagametophyte develops. The micropyle, a pore or opening in the apex of the integument of the ovule where the pollen tube usually enters during the process of fertilization. The chalaza, the base of the ovule opposite the micropyle, the shape of the ovules as they develop often affects the final shape of the seeds.

7. Farmer – A farmer is a person engaged in agriculture, raising living organisms for food or raw materials. The term usually applies to people who do some combination of raising crops, orchards, vineyards, poultry. However, in the not so distant past a farmer was a person who promotes or improves the growth of by labor and attention, farming has been dated back as far as the Neolithic era. By the Bronze Age, the Sumerians had an agriculture specialized labour force by 5000–4000 BCE and they relied on three-person teams when harvesting in the spring. The Ancient Egypt farmers farmed and relied and irrigated their water from the Nile, animal husbandry, the practice of rearing animals specifically for farming purposes, has existed for thousands of years. Dogs were domesticated in East Asia about 15,000 years ago, goats and sheep were domesticated around 8000 BCE in Asia. Swine or pigs were domesticated by 7000 BCE in the Middle East, the earliest evidence of horse domestication dates to around 4000 BCE. In the U. S. of the 1930s, one farmer fed only himself, the same farmer now feeds well over a hundred people. More distinct terms are used to denote farmers who raise specific domesticated animals. For example, those who raise grazing livestock, such as cattle, sheep, goats, sheep, goat, and cattle farmers might also be referred to respectively as shepherds, goatherds, and cowherds. The term dairy farmer is applied to those primarily in milk production, whether from cattle, goats, sheep. A poultry farmer is one who concentrates on raising chickens, turkeys, ducks, or geese, for meat, egg, or feather production, or commonly. A person who raises a variety of vegetables for market may be called a truck farmer or market gardener, dirt farmer is an American colloquial term for a practical farmer, or one who farms his own land. In developed nations, a farmer is usually defined as someone with an ownership interest in crops or livestock, and those who provide only labor are most often called farmhands. Alternatively, growers who manage farmland for a landowner, sharing the harvest are known as sharecroppers or sharefarmers. Historically, one subsisting in this way may have known as a peasant. In developed nations, however, a person using such techniques on small patches of land might be called a gardener, Farmers are often members of local, regional, or national farmers unions or agricultural producers organizations and can exert significant political influence. The Grange movement in the United States was effective in advancing farmers agendas, especially against railroad, the FNSEA is very politically active in France, especially pertaining to genetically modified food.

8. Retailer – Retail markets and shops have a very ancient history, dating back to antiquity. Retailing involves the process of selling goods or services to customers through multiple channels of distribution to earn a profit. Retailers satisfy demand is identified through a supply chain, Once the strategic retail plan is in place, retailers devise the retail mix which includes product, price, place, promotion, personnel and presentation. In the digital age, a number of retailers are seeking to reach broader markets by selling through multiple channels. Digital technologies are changing the way that consumers pay for goods. Retailing support services may include the provision of credit, delivery services. Shopping generally refers to the act of buying products, sometimes this is done to obtain final goods, including necessities such as food and clothing, sometimes it takes place as a recreational activity. Recreational shopping often involves window shopping and browsing, it not always result in a purchase. Retail shops occur in a range of types and in many different contexts - from strip shopping centres in residential streets through to large. Shopping streets may restrict traffic to pedestrians only, forms of non-shop retailing include online retailing and mail order. Retail comes from the Old French word tailler, which means to cut off, clip, pare and it was first recorded as a noun with the meaning of a sale in small quantities in 1433. Like in French, the retail in both Dutch and German also refers to the sale of small quantities of items. Also see History of merchants, History of the market place, open air, public markets were known in ancient Babylonia and Assyria. These markets typically occupied a place in the towns centre, surrounding the market, skilled artisans, such as metal-workers and leather workers, occupied premises in alley ways that led to the open market-place. These artisans may have sold wares directly from their premises, in ancient Greece markets operated within the agora, and in ancient Rome the forum. In antiquity, exchange involved direct selling, merchants or peddlers, the Phoenicians, noted for their seafaring skills, plied their ships across the Mediterranean, becoming a major trading power by 9th century BCE. The Phoenicians imported and exported wood, textiles, glass and produce such as wine, oil, dried fruit, the Phoenicians extensive trade networks necessitated considerable book-keeping and correspondence. In around 1500 BCE, the Phoenicians developed an alphabet which was much easier to learn that the complex scripts used in ancient Egypt.

9. Restaurant – A restaurant, or an eatery, is a business which prepares and serves food and drinks to customers in exchange for money. Meals are generally served and eaten on the premises, but many also offer take-out and food delivery services. In Western countries, most mid - to high-range restaurants serve alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine, some restaurants serve all the major meals, such as breakfast, lunch, and dinner. Other restaurants may serve a single meal or they may serve two meals or even a kids meal. Restaurants may be classified or distinguished in different ways. The primary factors are usually the food itself, the cuisine and/or the style of offering, beyond this, restaurants may differentiate themselves on factors including speed, formality, location, cost, service, or novelty themes. In the former case, customers usually wear casual clothing, in the latter case, depending on culture and local traditions, customers might wear semi-casual, semi-formal or formal wear. Typically, at mid - to high-priced restaurants, customers sit at tables, their orders are taken by a waiter, after eating, the customers then pay the bill. Another restaurant approach which uses few waiters is the buffet restaurant, customers serve food onto their own plates and then pay at the end of the meal. Buffet restaurants typically still have waiters to serve drinks and alcoholic beverages, fast food restaurants are also considered a restaurant. The travelling public has long been catered for with ships messes and railway restaurant cars which are, in effect, many railways, the world over, also cater for the needs of travellers by providing railway refreshment rooms, a form of restaurant, at railway stations. In the 2000s, a number of travelling restaurants, specifically designed for tourists, have been created and these can be found on trams, boats, buses, etc. A restaurants proprietor is called a restaurateur /ˌrɛstərəˈtɜːr/, like restaurant, professional cooks are called chefs, with there being various finer distinctions. Most restaurant will have various waiting staff to serve food, beverages and alcoholic drinks, including busboys who remove used dishes and cutlery. In finer restaurants, this may include a host or hostess, a maître dhôtel to welcome customers and to them. A new route to becoming a restauranter, rather than working ones way up through the stages, is to operate a food truck, once a sufficient following has been obtained, a permanent restaurant site can be opened. This trend has become common in the UK and the US, a chefs table is a table located in the kitchen of a restaurant, reserved for VIPs and special guests. Patrons may be served a themed tasting menu prepared and served by the head chef, Restaurants can require a minimum party and charge a higher flat fee.

10. Country – A country is a region that is identified as a distinct national entity in political geography. Sometimes the word countries is used to both to sovereign states and to other political entities, while other times it refers only to states. The word country comes from Old French contrée, itself derived from Vulgar Latin contrata and it most likely entered the English language after the Franco-Norman invasion during the 11th century. Areas much smaller than a state may be called by names such as the West Country in England, the Black Country, Constable Country. In many European countries the words are used for sub-divisions of the territory, as in the German Bundesländer. The modern Italian contrada is a word with its meaning varying locally, the term country is frequently used to refer to sovereign states. There is no agreement on the number of countries in the world. There are 206 sovereign states, of which 193 states are members of the United Nations, all are defined as states by declarative theory of statehood and constitutive theory of statehood. The latest proclaimed state is South Sudan in 2011, the Kingdom of Denmark, a sovereign state, comprises Metropolitan Denmark and two nominally separate countries—the Faroe Islands, and Greenland—which are almost fully internally self-governing. The Kingdom of the Netherlands, a state, comprises four separate countries, Netherlands, Aruba, Curaçao. The degree of autonomy of non-sovereign countries varies widely, some are possessions of sovereign states, as several states have overseas territories, with citizenry at times identical and at times distinct from their own.

11. Fertilizer – A fertilizer or fertiliser is any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soils or to plant tissues to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants. Fertilizers enhance the growth of plants and this goal is met in two ways, the traditional one being additives that provide nutrients. The second mode by which some fertilizers act is to enhance the effectiveness of the soil by modifying its water retention and aeration and this article, like many on fertilizers, emphasises the nutritional aspect. The nutrients required for plant life are classified according to the elements. Instead compounds containing these elements are the basis of fertilizers, the macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0. 15% to 6. 0% on a dry matter basis. Plants are made up of four elements, hydrogen, oxygen, carbon. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are widely available as water and carbon dioxide, although nitrogen makes up most of the atmosphere, it is in a form that is unavailable to plants. Nitrogen is the most important fertilizer since nitrogen is present in proteins, DNA, to be nutritious to plants, nitrogen must be made available in a fixed form. Only some bacteria and their host plants can fix atmospheric nitrogen by converting it to ammonia, phosphate is required for the production of DNA and ATP, the main energy carrier in cells, as well as certain lipids. Micronutrients are consumed in quantities and are present in plant tissue on the order of parts-per-million, ranging from 0.15 to 400 ppm DM. These elements are present at the active sites of enzymes that carry out the plants metabolism. Because these elements enable catalysts their impact far exceeds their weight percentage, Fertilizers are classified in several ways. They are classified according to whether they provide a single nutrient, multinutrient fertilizers provide two or more nutrients, for example N and P. Fertilizers are also sometimes classified as inorganic versus organic. Inorganic fertilizers exclude carbon-containing materials except ureas, organic fertilizers are usually plant - or animal-derived matter. Inorganic are sometimes called synthetic fertilizers since various chemical treatments are required for their manufacture, the main nitrogen-based straight fertilizer is ammonia or its solutions. Ammonium nitrate is widely used. Urea is another source of nitrogen, having the advantage that it is solid and non-explosive, unlike ammonia and ammonium nitrate. A few percent of the fertilizer market has been met by calcium ammonium nitrate.

12. Pesticide – Pesticides are substances that are meant to control pests or weeds. The most common of these are herbicides which account for approximately 80% of all pesticide use, most pesticides are intended to serve as plant protection products, which in general, protect plants from weeds, fungi, or insects. In general, a pesticide is a chemical or biological agent that deters, incapacitates, kills, or otherwise discourages pests. Target pests can include insects, plant pathogens, weeds, mollusks, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes, although pesticides have benefits, some also have drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans and other species. According to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants,9 of the 12 most dangerous, the term includes substances intended for use as a plant growth regulator, defoliant, desiccant, or agent for thinning fruit or preventing the premature fall of fruit. Also used as substances applied to either before or after harvest to protect the commodity from deterioration during storage. Pesticides can be classified by target organism, chemical structure, biopesticides include microbial pesticides and biochemical pesticides. Plant-derived pesticides, or botanicals, have been developing quickly and these include the pyrethroids, rotenoids, nicotinoids, and a fourth group that includes strychnine and scilliroside. Many pesticides can be grouped into chemical families, prominent insecticide families include organochlorines, organophosphates, and carbamates. Organochlorine hydrocarbons could be separated into dichlorodiphenylethanes, cyclodiene compounds, and they operate by disrupting the sodium/potassium balance of the nerve fiber, forcing the nerve to transmit continuously. Their toxicities vary greatly, but they have phased out because of their persistence. Organophosphate and carbamates largely replaced organochlorines, both operate through inhibiting the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, allowing acetylcholine to transfer nerve impulses indefinitely and causing a variety of symptoms such as weakness or paralysis. Organophosphates are quite toxic to vertebrates, and have in some cases replaced by less toxic carbamates. Thiocarbamate and dithiocarbamates are subclasses of carbamates, prominent families of herbicides include phenoxy and benzoic acid herbicides, triazines, ureas, and Chloroacetanilides. Phenoxy compounds tend to selectively kill broad-leaf weeds rather than grasses, the phenoxy and benzoic acid herbicides function similar to plant growth hormones, and grow cells without normal cell division, crushing the plants nutrient transport system. Many commonly used pesticides are not included in these families, including glyphosate, Pesticides can be classified based upon their biological mechanism function or application method. Most pesticides work by poisoning pests, a systemic pesticide moves inside a plant following absorption by the plant. With insecticides and most fungicides, this movement is usually upward and outward, increased efficiency may be a result.

13. Antibiotic – Antibiotics, also called antibacterials, are a type of antimicrobial drug used in the treatment and prevention of bacterial infections. They may either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria, a limited number of antibiotics also possess antiprotozoal activity. Antibiotics are not effective against viruses such as the cold or influenza. Drugs which inhibit viruses are termed antiviral drugs or antivirals rather than antibiotics, sometimes the term antibiotic is used to refer to any substance used against microbes, synonymous with antimicrobial. Some sources distinguish between antibacterial and antibiotic, antibacterials are used in soaps and disinfectants, while antibiotics are used as medicine, Antibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century, and have together with vaccination led to the near eradication of diseases such as tuberculosis in the developed world. However, their effectiveness and easy access led to overuse, especially in raising, prompting bacteria to develop resistance. All classes of antibiotics in use today were first discovered prior to the mid 1980s, substances with antibiotic properties had been used for various purposes since ancient times. Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore, mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mold and plant materials, more recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur observed, if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics. In 1874, physician Sir William Roberts noted that cultures of the mold Penicillium glaucum that is used in the making of types of blue cheese did not display bacterial contamination. In 1876, physicist John Tyndall also contributed to this field, Louis Pasteur conducted research showing that Bacillus anthracis would not grow in the presence of the related mold Penicillium notatum. In his thesis, Duchesne proposed that bacteria and molds engage in a battle for survival. Duchesne observed that E. coli was eliminated by the fungus Penicillium glaucum when they were grown in the same culture. He also observed that when he inoculated animals with lethal doses of typhoid bacilli together with Penicillium glaucum. Unfortunately Duchesnes army service after getting his degree prevented him from doing any further research, Duchesne died of tuberculosis, a disease now treated by antibiotics. In 1928, Sir Alexander Fleming identified penicillin, a molecule produced by molds that kills or stops the growth of certain kinds of bacteria. Fleming was working on a culture of disease-causing bacteria when he noticed the spores of a mold, Penicillium chrysogenum.

14. Sewage sludge – Sewage sludge refers to the residual, semi-solid material that is produced as a by-product during sewage treatment of industrial or municipal wastewater. The term septage is also referring to sludge from wastewater treatment but is connected to simple on-site sanitation systems. When fresh sewage or wastewater enters a primary settling tank, approximately 50% of the solid matter will settle out in an hour. This collection of solids is known as raw sludge or primary solids and is said to be fresh before anaerobic processes become active, the sludge will become putrescent in a short time once anaerobic bacteria take over, and must be removed from the sedimentation tank before this happens. This is accomplished in one of two ways, after digesting for an extended period, the result is called digested sludge and may be disposed of by drying and then landfilling. Biosolids is an often used in conjunction with reuse of sewage sludge after sewage sludge treatment. Biosolids can be defined as organic wastewater solids that can be reused after stabilization processes such as anaerobic digestion, opponents of sewage sludge reuse reject this term as a public relations term. Class A sludge is typically dried and pasteurized, and is known as exceptional quality. Class B includes all sludge not classified as Class A, Class B sludge is typically undigested and is volatile. Both classes of sludge may still contain radioactive or pharmaceutical wastes, the amount of sewage sludge produced is proportional to the amount and concentration of wastewater treated, and it also depends on the type of wastewater treatment process used. It can be expressed as kg dry solids per cubic metre of wastewater treated, the total sludge production from a wastewater treatment process is the sum of sludge from primary settling tanks plus excess sludge from the biological treatment step. For example, primary sedimentation produces about 110–170 kg/ML of so-called primary sludge, the sludge production is expressed as kg of dry solids produced per ML of wastewater treated, one mega litre is 103 m3. United States municipal wastewater treatment plants in 1997 produced about 7.7 million dry tons of sewage sludge, as of 2002, about 60% of all sewage sludge was applied to land as a soil amendment and fertilizer for growing crops. Bacteria in Class A sludge products can actually regrow under certain environmental conditions, Pathogens could easily remain undetected in untreated sewage sludge. Pathogens are not a significant health issue if sewage sludge is properly treated, micro-pollutants can become concentrated in sewage sludge. Each of these disposal options comes with a myriad of potential — and in some cases proven — human health, high levels of sterols and other hormones have been detected, with averages in the range of up to 1,000,000 µg/kg sludge. One of the concerns in the treated sludge is the concentrated metals content. Leaching methods can be used to reduce the content and meet the regulatory limit.

15. Genetically modified crops – Genetically modified crops are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering techniques. In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species, examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation. Farmers have widely adopted GM technology, between 1996 and 2015, the total surface area of land cultivated with GM crops increased by a factor of 100, from 17,000 km2 to 1,797,000 km2. 10% of the arable land was planted with GM crops in 2010. In the US, by 2014, 94% of the area of soybeans, 96% of cotton. Use of GM crops expanded rapidly in developing countries, with about 18 million farmers growing 54% of worldwide GM crops by 2013. A2014 meta-analysis concluded that GM technology adoption had reduced chemical pesticide use by 37%, increased crop yields by 22% and this reduction in pesticide use has been ecologically beneficial, but benefits may be reduced by overuse. Yield gains and pesticide reductions are larger for insect-resistant crops than for herbicide-tolerant crops, yield and profit gains are higher in developing countries than in developed countries. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe, the legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation. Several natural mechanisms allow gene flow across species and these occur in nature on a large scale – for example, it is one mechanism for the development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria. This is facilitated by transposons, retrotransposons, proviruses and other genetic elements that naturally translocate DNA to new loci in a genome. Movement occurs over a time scale. The introduction of foreign germplasm into crops has been achieved by traditional crop breeders by overcoming species barriers, a hybrid cereal grain was created in 1875, by crossing wheat and rye. Since then important traits including dwarfing genes and rust resistance have been introduced, plant tissue culture and deliberate mutations have enabled humans to alter the makeup of plant genomes. The first genetically modified plant was produced in 1982, an antibiotic-resistant tobacco plant. The first field trials occurred in France and the USA in 1986, the Peoples Republic of China was the first country to allow commercialized transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992, which was withdrawn in 1997. The first genetically modified crop approved for sale in the U. S. in 1994, was the FlavrSavr tomato and it had a longer shelf life, because it took longer to soften after ripening. In 1994, the European Union approved tobacco engineered to be resistant to the herbicide bromoxynil, in 1995, Bt Potato was approved by the US Environmental Protection Agency, making it the countrys first pesticide producing crop.

16. Government – A government is the system by which a state or community is controlled. In the case of this broad definition, government normally consists of legislators, administrators. Government is the means by which state policy is enforced, as well as the mechanism for determining the policy of the state. Forms of government, or forms of governance, refers to the set of political systems. Governments control the economy, social freedoms, and political systems and this usage is analogous to what is called an administration in American English. Finally, government is sometimes used in English as a synonym for governance. In addition to the political meanings, in grammar and theoretical linguistics.

17. Fraud – In law, fraud is deliberate deception to secure unfair or unlawful gain, or to deprive a victim of a legal right. Fraud itself can be a wrong, a criminal wrong or it may cause no loss of money, property or legal right. The purpose of fraud may be monetary gain or other benefits, a hoax is a distinct concept that involves deliberate deception without the intention of gain or of materially damaging or depriving a victim. In common law jurisdictions, as a wrong, fraud is a tort. Proving fraud in a court of law is said to be difficult. In cases of a fraudulently induced contract, fraud may serve as a defense in an action for breach of contract or specific performance of contract. Fraud may serve as a basis for a court to invoke its equitable jurisdiction, in common law jurisdictions, as a criminal offence, fraud takes many different forms, some general and some specific to particular categories of victims or misconduct. The elements of fraud as a crime similarly vary, section 380 of the Criminal Code provides the general definition for fraud in Canada,380. In addition to the penalties outlined above, the court can issue a prohibition order under s.380.2. It can also make an order under s.380.3. The Canadian courts have held that the offence consists of two elements, A prohibited act of deceit, falsehood or other fraudulent means. The Supreme Court of Canada has held that deprivation is satisfied on proof of detriment, prejudice or risk of prejudice, it is not essential that there be actual loss. Deprivation of confidential information, in the nature of a secret or copyrighted material that has commercial value, has also been held to fall within the scope of the offence. The BBC World Service reported in 2012 that the value lost through fraud in the UK was £66 billion a year. According to a review by the UK anti-fraud charity Fraud Advisory Panel business fraud accounted for £144bn, the FAP has been particularly critical of the support available from the police to victims of fraud in the UK outside of London. In July 2016 it was reported that fraudulent activity levels in the UK increased in the 10 years to 2016 from £52 billion to £193bn. This figure would be an estimate, since as the former commissioner of the City of London Police, Adrian Leppard, has said. Donald Toon, director of the NCAs economic crime command, stated in July 2016, Fraud affects one in ten people in the UK.

18. Organic movement – The organic movement broadly refers to the organizations and individuals involved worldwide in the promotion of organic farming and other organic products. It started around the first half of the 20th century, when modern large-scale agricultural practices began to appear, the term “organic” can be broadly described as food grown without the assistance of man-made chemicals. The beginnings of the movement can be traced back to the beginning of the 1800s. In 1840 Justus Von Liebig developed a theory of plant nutrition. Liebig believed that manure could be substituted by certain mineral salts. Many years later in 1910, preceding the First World War, chemists Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch developed an ammonia synthesis process and this form of ammonia had already been used to manufacture explosives, so after the war, it was implemented into the fertilization of agriculture. The organic movement began in the early 1900s in response to the shift towards synthetic nitrogen fertilizers, in 1972 these organizations joined to form the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements. In recent years, environmental awareness has driven demand and conversion to organic farming, some governments, including the European Union, have begun to support organic farming through agricultural subsidy reform. Organic production and marketing have grown at a fast pace, today, organic foods stores have captured a significant share of the grocery shopping market, specifically, Whole Foods Market, Wild Oats, Trader joes and others. In the summer of 1924 Rudolf Steiner presented what has called the first organic agriculture course to a group of over one hundred farmers and others at Koberwitz, now Kobierzyce. The first use of the organic farming is by Lord Northbourne. The term derives from his concept of the farm as organism, which he expounded in his book, Look to the Land, Northbourne wrote of chemical farming versus organic farming. In 1939, strongly influenced by Sir Howards work, Lady Eve Balfour launched the Haughley Experiment on farmland in England and it was the first, side-by-side comparison of organic and conventional farming. Four years later, she published The Living Soil, based on the findings of the Haughley Experiment. It was widely read, and lead to the formation of a key international organic advocacy group, during the 1950s, sustainable agriculture was a research topic of interest. The science tended to concentrate on the new chemical approaches, Rodale began to popularize the term and methods of organic growing. In addition to research, Rodales publications through the Rodale Press helped to promote organic gardening to the general public. A bestseller in many countries, including the US, and widely read around the world, the book and its author are often credited with launching the environmental movement.

19. Farmers' markets – A farmers market is a physical retail market featuring foods sold directly by farmers to consumers. Farmers markets typically consist of booths, tables or stands, outdoors or indoors, where farmers sell fruits, vegetables, meats, Farmers markets exist worldwide and reflect their local culture and economy. Their size ranges from a few stalls to several city blocks, the current concept of a farmers market is similar to past concepts, but different in relation to other forms – as aspects of consumer retailing, overall, continue to shift over time. Similar forms existed before the Industrial age, but often formed part of broader markets, trading posts began a shift toward retailers who sold others products more than their own. Modern industrial food productions advantages over prior methods depend largely on modern, cheap, fast transport, but transport costs and delays cannot be completely eliminated. So where distance strained industrial suppliers reach, where consumers had strong preference for local variety, starting in the mid-2000s, consumer demand for foods that are fresher and for foods with more variety—has led to growth of farmers markets as a food-retailing mechanism. It has been claimed that farmers markets can offer farmers increased profit over selling to wholesalers, food processors, by selling directly to consumers, produce often needs less transport, less handling, less refrigeration and less time in storage. By selling in a market, the cost of land, buildings. Farmers may also retain profit on produce not sold to consumers, by selling the excess to canneries, at the market, farmers can retain the full premium for part of their produce, instead of only a processors wholesale price for the entire lot. Some farmers may also prefer the simplicity, immediacy, transparency, with fewer intermediaries, the support of independent growers by local community members can enhance local economic opportunities and health & wellness in poor communities. Some consumers may favor farmers markets for the perceived, reduced overhead, driving, parking, etc. fresher foods seasonal foods healthier foods a better variety of foods, e. g. In some cases claimed to sell products from their own farm at first. In at least one case despite vendor claims to the contrary the farm in question was not growing any food, in many cases fraud is obvious because the type of food being sold does not grow locally or is out of season. Federal regulations in the United States require country of origin labelling for produce at supermarkets, in the United States, the FDA requires that the manufacturers name and address be listed on the food label, which can reveal this discrepancy. In New York City, there are 107 farmers markets in operation, in the Los Angeles area,88 farmers markets exist, many of which support Hispanic and Asian fare. Since the first farmers market was established in the UK in 1997, consumers were worried about the farming practices by which food is produced, processed and the health and safety aspects of certain foods. The emergence of books, magazine articles, and cookery and gardening programmes influence consumer concern of food preparation and consumption, the EU has formalized efforts to expand farmers markets to reduce food safety risks and poor nutrition through programs known as Farm to Fork. Some markets are strictly managed, with rules for pricing, quality, others are much more relaxed in their operations and vendor criteria.

20. Supermarkets – A supermarket, a large form of the traditional grocery store, is a self-service shop offering a wide variety of food and household products, organized into aisles. It is larger and has a wider selection than a grocery store. The traditional supermarket occupies a large amount of space, usually on a single level. It is usually situated near an area in order to be convenient to consumers. The basic appeal is the availability of a selection of goods under a single roof. Other advantages include ease of parking and frequently the convenience of shopping hours that extend into the evening or even 24 hours of day, Supermarkets usually allocate large budgets to advertising, typically through newspapers. They also present elaborate in-shop displays of products, the shops are usually part of corporate chains that own or control other supermarkets located nearby—even transnationally—thus increasing opportunities for economies of scale. Supermarkets typically are supplied by the centres of their parent companies. Supermarkets usually offer products at low prices by using their buying power to buy goods from manufacturers at lower prices than smaller stores can. They also minimise financing costs by paying for goods at least 30 days after receipt, certain products are very occasionally sold as loss leaders, that is, with negative profit margins so as to attract shoppers to their store. There is some debate as to the effectiveness of this tactic, to maintain a profit, supermarkets make up for the lower margins by a higher overall volume of sales, and with the sale of higher-margin items bought by the intended higher volume of shoppers. Customers usually shop by placing their selected merchandise into shopping carts or baskets, a larger full-service supermarket combined with a department store is sometimes known as a hypermarket. If the eatery in a supermarket is substantial enough, the facility may be called a grocerant, also, most foods and merchandise did not come in individually wrapped consumer-sized packages, so an assistant had to measure out and wrap the precise amount desired by the consumer. This also offered opportunities for interaction, many regarded this style of shopping as a social occasion. These practices were by nature very labor-intensive and therefore also quite expensive, the shopping process was slow, as the number of customers who could be attended to at one time was limited by the number of staff employed in the store. The concept of a food market relying on large economies of scale was developed by Vincent Astor. The expectation was that customers would come from great distances, but in the end even attracting people from ten blocks away was difficult, the concept of a self-service grocery store was developed by entrepreneur Clarence Saunders and his Piggly Wiggly stores. His first store opened in 1916, Saunders was awarded a number of patents for the ideas he incorporated into his stores.

21. Service mark – A service mark or servicemark is a trademark used in the United States and several other countries to identify a service rather than a product. When a service mark is registered, the standard registration symbol ® or Reg U. S. Pat & TM Off may be used, before it is registered, it is common practice to use the service mark symbol ℠. For example, a carrier can paint its service mark on its vehicles. Personal service providers can place their service marks on their delivery vehicles, however, if the service deals with communications, it is possible to use a service mark consisting of a sound in the process of delivering the service. Under United States law, service marks have a different standard of use in order to count as a use in commerce, a trademark normally needs to be used on or directly in association with the sale of goods, such as on a store display. As services are not defined by a product, use of a service mark on the uniforms or vehicles of service providers or in advertisements is instead accepted as a use in commerce. However, like trademarks, service marks must pass a test of distinctiveness for it to be qualified as a service mark, thrifty, Inc. attempted to submit a service mark application that described aspects of their business as being blue. The application was rejected for not being enough, and the rejection was upheld on appeal. The service mark symbol is mapped in Unicode as U+2120 ℠ Service mark, a Unicode-capable browser is needed to display this character properly, which appears similar to SM. Certification mark Marketing Service mark symbol.

22. Consumer – A consumer is a person or organization that uses economic services or commodities. In economic systems consumers are utilities expressed in the decision to trade or not, the consumer is the one who pays to consume goods and services produced. As such, consumers play a role in the economic system of a nation. Without consumer demand, producers would lack one of the key motivations to produce, the consumer also forms part of the chain of distribution. The law primarily uses the notion of the consumer in relation to protection laws. As of all voters are also consumers, consumer protection takes on a clear political significance. Concern over the interests of consumers has also spawned activism, as well as incorporation of consumer education into school curricula, there are also various non-profit publications, such as Which. Consumer Reports and Choice Magazine, dedicated to assist in education and decision making. In India, the Consumer Protection Act 1986 differentiates the consummation of a commodity or service for use or to earn a livelihood. Only consumers are protected per this act and any person, entity or organization purchasing a commodity for commercial reasons are exempted from any benefits of this act, U. S. Government National Consumer Protection Week.

23. Logo – A logo is a graphic mark, emblem, or symbol commonly used by commercial enterprises, organizations, and even individuals to aid and promote instant public recognition. There are purely graphic emblems, symbols, icons and logos, in the days of hot metal typesetting, a logotype was one word cast as a single piece of type. By extension, the term was used for a uniquely set. At the level of communication and in common usage, a companys logo is today often synonymous with its trademark or brand. The arts were expanding in purpose—from expression and decoration of an artistic, storytelling nature, to a differentiation of brands, consultancies and trades-groups in the commercial arts were growing and organizing, by 1890, the US had 700 lithographic printing firms employing more than 8,000 people. Artistic credit tended to be assigned to the company, as opposed to the individual artists who usually performed less important jobs. Playful children’s books, authoritative newspapers, and conversational periodicals developed their own visual and editorial styles for unique, as printing costs decreased, literacy rates increased, and visual styles changed, the Victorian decorative arts led to an expansion of typographic styles and methods of representing businesses. A renewal of interest in craftsmanship and quality also provided the artists and companies with a greater interest in credit, leading to the creation of unique logos and marks. By the 1950s, Modernism had shed its roots as an artistic movement in Europe to become an international, commercialized movement with adherents in the United States. Modernist-inspired logos proved successful in the era of mass visual communication ushered in by television, improvements in printing technology, the current era of logo design began in the 1870s with the first abstract logo, the Bass red triangle. As of 2014, many corporations, products, brands, services, agencies, as a result, only a few of the thousands of ideograms in circulation are recognizable without a name. Ideograms and symbols may be effective than written names, especially for logos translated into many alphabets in increasingly globalized markets. For instance, a written in Arabic script might have little resonance in most European markets. By contrast, ideograms keep the general nature of a product in both markets. In non-profit areas, the Red Cross exemplifies a well-known emblem that does not need an accompanying name, the red cross and red crescent are among the best-recognized symbols in the world. National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and their Federation as well as the International Committee of the Red Cross include these symbols in their logos, branding can aim to facilitate cross-language marketing. Consumers and potential consumers can identify the Coca-Cola name written in different alphabets because of the standard color, the text was written in Spencerian Script, which was a popular writing style when the Coca Cola Logo was being designed. Since a logo is the visual entity signifying an organization, logo design is an important area of graphic design, a logo is the central element of a complex identification system that must be functionally extended to all communications of an organization.

24. Farm – A farm is an area of land that is devoted primarily to agricultural processes with the primary objective of producing food and other crops, it is the basic facility in food production. It includes ranches, feedlots, orchards, plantations and estates, smallholdings and hobby farms, in modern times the term has been extended so as to include such industrial operations as wind farms and fish farms, both of which can operate on land or sea. Farming originated independently in different parts of the world, as hunter gatherer societies transitioned to food production rather than, food capture. It may have started about 12,000 years ago with the domestication of livestock in the Fertile Crescent in western Asia, modern farms in developed countries are highly mechanized. In Europe, traditional farms are giving way to larger production units. In Australia, some farms are large because the land is unable to support a high stocking density of livestock because of climatic conditions. In less developed countries, small farms are the norm, the word is from the medieval Latin noun firma, also the source of the French word ferme, meaning a fixed agreement, contract, from the classical Latin adjective firmus meaning strong, stout, firm. Farming has been innovated at multiple different points and places in human history and it was the worlds first historically verifiable revolution in agriculture. Subsequent step-changes in human farming practices were provoked by the British Agricultural Revolution in the 18th century, farming spread from the Middle East to Europe and by 4,000 BC people that lived in the central part of Europe were using oxen to pull plows and wagons. A farm may operate under a system or with a variety of cereal or arable crops. Specialist farms are often denoted as such, thus a dairy farm, fish farm, some farms may not use the word at all, hence vineyard, orchard, market garden or truck farm. Some farms may be denoted by their location, such as a hill farm. Many other terms are used to describe farms to denote their methods of production, as in collective, corporate, intensive, organic or vertical. There are many breeds of cattle that can be milked some of the best producing ones include Holstein, Norwegian Red, Kostroma, Brown Swiss, in most Western countries, a centralized dairy facility processes milk and dairy products, such as cream, butter, and cheese. In the United States, these dairies are usually local companies, dairy farms generally sell male calves for veal meat, as dairy breeds are not normally satisfactory for commercial beef production. Many dairy farms also grow their own feed, typically including corn, alfalfa and this is fed directly to the cows, or stored as silage for use during the winter season. Additional dietary supplements are added to the feed to milk production. Poultry farms are devoted to raising chickens, turkeys, ducks, a pig farm is one that specializes in raising pigs or hogs for bacon, ham and other pork products and may be free range, intensive, or both.

25. Transport – Transport or transportation is the movement of people, animals and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline, the field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles and operations. Transport is important because it enables trade between people, which is essential for the development of civilizations, terminals may be used both for interchange of passengers and cargo and for maintenance. Vehicles traveling on these networks may include automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks, people, helicopters, operations deal with the way the vehicles are operated, and the procedures set for this purpose including financing, legalities and policies. In the transport industry, operations and ownership of infrastructure can be public or private, depending on the country. Passenger transport may be public, where operators provide scheduled services, freight transport has become focused on containerization, although bulk transport is used for large volumes of durable items. Transport plays an important part in growth and globalization, but most types cause air pollution. While it is subsidized by governments, good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow. A mode of transport is a solution that makes use of a type of vehicle, infrastructure. The transport of a person or of cargo may involve one mode or several of the modes, each mode has its own advantages and disadvantages, and will be chosen for a trip on the basis of cost, capability, and route. Human powered transport, a form of transportation, is the transport of people and/or goods using human muscle-power. Modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human power, human-powered vehicles have also been developed for difficult environments, such as snow and water, by watercraft rowing and skiing, even the air can be entered with human-powered aircraft. Animal-powered transport is the use of working animals for the movement of people, humans may ride some of the animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or harness them, alone or in teams, to pull sleds or wheeled vehicles. A fixed-wing aircraft, commonly called airplane, is a craft where movement of the air in relation to the wings is used to generate lift. The term is used to distinguish this from rotary-wing aircraft, where the movement of the lift surfaces relative to the air generates lift, a gyroplane is both fixed-wing and rotary-wing. Fixed-wing aircraft range from small trainers and recreational aircraft to large airliners, two things necessary for aircraft are air flow over the wings for lift and an area for landing. The majority of aircraft also need an airport with the infrastructure to receive maintenance, restocking, refueling and for the loading and unloading of crew, cargo and passengers. While the vast majority of land and take off on land, some are capable of take off and landing on ice, snow.

26. Certified Naturally Grown – It is operated as a non-profit corporation, headquartered in Brooklyn, New York. Today, most family farmers that continue to grow organic are not certified by the USDA and it shouldn’t matter…except that the law states a farmer cannot declare or even describe their produce as “organic” unless it is certified by a USDA accredited certifier. Certified Naturally Grown farmers are required to submit to an annual inspection, inspection procedures and forms can be perused and downloaded, and completed applications and signed declarations are available for public viewing, on the CNG web site. All CNG farms are subject to random pesticide residue testing, CNG operates in the US and Canada. A United Kingdom sister organization, the Wholesome Food Association, promotes similar food production standards at the local, grassroots level, certified Naturally Grown Wholesome Food Association – CNGs sister group in the UK.

27. Fair trade certification – The Fairtrade certification initiative was created to form a new method for economic trade. This method takes a stand point, and considers the producers first. The Fairtrade organization forms a partnership between the consumer and the producer, and aims to eliminate other parties within the supply chain, the second part of Fairtrade International is the independent certifier, FLOCert. FLOCert ensures that companies and producers all comply with FLOs standards of trade, Fairtrade International was initially made up of other national fair trade initiatives from around the world, who came together to form one international umbrella organisation. Fairtrade International started with the industry, but now covers a range of products such as cocoa, fruit, cotton, flowers, tea. The established buyers of these make up a niche market. As of 2011,827 producer organizations in 58 developing countries were Fairtrade certified, the effectiveness of Fairtrade is questionable, and in some cases workers on Fairtrade farms have a lower standard of living than on similar farms outside the Fairtrade system. The fair trade movement stemmed from an initiative established by the Dutch development agency, Solidaridad, the agency recognised that the producers were not being treated fairly, and strived to create a more ethical system to trade. The Max Havelaar seal, which was based on a character, was established to license existing roasters and retailers who complied with its fair trade criteria. The seal provided specific benefits for cooperatives of small producers in Mexico, with the aim of balancing the production of crops to be exported. The four benefits in this model of the fairtrade initiative were. An additional 10% of the price for their investment in social and environmental projects. The Solidaridad informed large audiences of the mistreatment of coffee producers and they worked with other associations as well as the mass media to spread the message and create an awareness of their fair trade initiative. Because of their efforts, in 1988 the first bag of Max Hevelaar sealed coffee from Mexico was delivered to Hollands Prince Claus, by the 1990s every western European country had established their own national version of the Max Hevelaar initiative. Between the late 1980s and the mid 1990s, multiple national initiatives following a trade system coexisted within Europe, USA, Canada. 1997 however,17 national initiatives joined forces to create one international umbrella organisation called the Fair Trade Organization, FLO is based in Bonn, Germany, and has quickly become the largest organisation of its kind. FLO also has branches and field workers situated in Africa, Central and South America, the international fair trade label was introduced in 2002 to improve visibility for consumers. A key part of the Fair Trade initiative is to consumers through innovative marketing.

28. Millennium Development Goals – Critics of the MDGs complained of a lack of analysis and justification behind the chosen objectives, and the difficulty or lack of measurements for some goals and uneven progress, among others. As of 2013, progress towards the goals was uneven, some countries achieved many goals, while others were not on track to realize any. A UN conference in September 2010 reviewed progress to date and adopted a plan to achieve the eight goals by their target date. New commitments targeted womens and childrens health, and new initiatives in the battle against poverty, hunger. The Sustainable Development Goals replaced the MDGs in 2016, preparations for the 2000 Millennium Summit launched with the report of the Secretary-General entitled, We the people, The Role of the United Nations in the Twenty-First Century. Additional input was prepared by the Millennium Forum, which brought together representatives of over 1,000 non-governmental, the Forum met in May to conclude a two-year consultation process covering issues such as poverty eradication, environmental protection, human rights and protection of the vulnerable. MDGs derive from earlier development targets, where world leaders adopted the United Nations Millennium Declaration, the approval of the Millennium Declaration was the main outcome of the Millennium Summit. The MDGs originated from the United Nations Millennium Declaration, the MDGs set concrete targets and indicators for poverty reduction in order to achieve the rights set forth in the Declaration. The Brahimi Report provided the basis of the goals in the area of peace, the Millennium Summit Declaration was, however, only part of the origins of the MDGs. More ideas came from Adam Figueroa, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the World Bank, a series of UN‑led conferences in the 1990s focused on issues such as children, nutrition, human rights and women. The OECD criticized major donors for reducing their levels of Official Development Assistance, UN Secretary General Kofi Annan signed a report titled, We the Peoples, The Role of the United Nations in the 21st Century. The OECD had formed its International Development Goals, the two efforts were combined for the World Banks 2001 meeting to form the MDGs. The MDGs emphasized three areas, human capital, infrastructure and human rights, with the intent of increasing living standards, human capital objectives include nutrition, healthcare and education. Human rights objectives include empowering women, reducing violence, increasing political voice, ensuring access to public services. The goals were intended to increase an individual’s human capabilities and advance the means to a productive life, the MDGs emphasize that each nations policies should be tailored to that countrys needs, therefore most policy suggestions are general. Thus developing nations ostensibly became partners with developed nations in the struggle to reduce world poverty, the MDGs were developed out of several commitments set forth in the Millennium Declaration, signed in September 2000. There are eight goals with 21 targets, and a series of health indicators. Target 1A, Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of living on less than $1.

29. Codex Alimentarius – The Codex Alimentarius is a collection of internationally recognized standards, codes of practice, guidelines, and other recommendations relating to foods, food production, and food safety. Its name is derived from the Codex Alimentarius Austriacus, the Commissions main goals are to protect the health of consumers and ensure fair practices in the international food trade. The Codex Alimentarius is recognized by the World Trade Organization as a reference point for the resolution of disputes concerning food safety. As of 2012, there were 186 members of the Codex Alimentarius Commission,186 member countries and one member organization, there were 215 Codex observers,49 intergovernmental organizations,150 non-governmental organizations, and 16 United Nations organizations. The Codex Alimentarius covers all foods, whether processed, semi-processed or raw and it also contains guidelines for the management of official i. e. governmental import and export inspection and certification systems for foods. The Codex Alimentarius is published in the six languages of the United Nations, Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Spanish. Not all texts are available in all languages, the proposal was agreed, but protests halted its implementation. The 28th Session of the Codex Alimentarius Commission was subsequently held July 4–9,2005. be encouraged to select a balanced diet from food before considering any vitamin and mineral supplement. In cases where the intake from the diet is insufficient or where consumers consider their diet requires supplementation, vitamin and this text has been the subject of considerable controversy among proponents of dietary supplements. Many countries regulate such substances as therapeutic goods or pharmaceuticals or by some other category, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization will implement these criteria with labelling to stop consumers overdosing on vitamin and mineral food supplements. The Codex Alimentarius Commission has said that the Guidelines call for labelling that contains information on maximum consumption levels of vitamin, the WHO has also said that the Guidelines ensure that consumers receive beneficial health effects from vitamins and minerals. In 2004, similarities were noted between the EUs Food Supplements Directive and the Codex Alimentarius draft guidelines for vitamin and mineral supplements, published 13 July 2012 by the Food Inspection & Safety Service of the U. S. D. A.

30. Consumer protection – The laws are designed to prevent the businesses that engage in fraud or specified unfair practices from gaining an advantage over competitors. They may also provide protection for those most vulnerable in society. Consumer protection laws are a form of government regulation that aim to protect the rights of consumers, for example, a government may require businesses to disclose detailed information about products—particularly in areas where safety or public health is an issue, such as food. A consumer is defined as someone who acquires goods or services for use or ownership rather than for resale or use in production. Consumer protection can also be asserted via non-government organizations and individuals as consumer activism, Consumer protection law or consumer law is considered an area of law that regulates private law relationships between individual consumers and the businesses that sell those goods and services. Its a way of preventing fraud and scams from service and sales contracts, bill collector regulation, pricing, utility turnoffs, consolidation, the following lists consumer legislation at the nation-state level. In the EU member states Germany and the United Kingdom there is also the applicability of law at the EU level to be considered, in Australia, the corresponding agency is the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission or the individual State Consumer Affairs agencies. The Australian Securities and Investments Commission has responsibility for consumer protection regulation of financial services, however, in practice it does so through privately run EDR schemes such as the Financial Ombudsman Service. Germany as a state of the European Union is bound by the consumer protection directives of the European Union. A minister of the cabinet is responsible for consumer rights. In the current cabinet of Angela Merkel, this is Heiko Maas.84,71 BVerwGE 183), in India The Consumer protection act,1986 is governing consumer protection. Appeal could be filed to the State Consumer Disputes Redress Commissions, in recent years, many effective judgment have been passed by some state and National Consumer Forums. The Sale of Goods Act of 1930 act provides some safeguards to buyers of goods if goods purchased do not fulfill the express or implied conditions, the Civil Code in Taiwan contains five books, General Principles, Obligations, Rights over Things, Family, and Succession. The second book of the Code, the Book of Obligations, the Consumer Protection Commission of Executive Yuan serves as an ombudsman supervising, coordinating, reporting any unsafe products/services and periodically reviewing the legislation. Specifics of the division of labour between the EU and the UK are detailed here, domestic laws originated within the ambit of contract and tort but, with the influence of EU law, it is emerging as an independent area of law. In many circumstances, where law is in question, the matter judicially treated as tort, contract. Consumer Protection issues are dealt with when complaints are made to the Director-General of Fair Trade, the Office of Fair Trading will then investigate, impose an injunction or take the matter to litigation. However, consumers cannot directly complain to the OFT, complaints need to be made to the Citizens Advice Consumer Service who will provide legal advice to complainants, or re-direct the individual complaint to Trading Standards for investigation.

31. World Trade Organization – The World Trade Organization is an intergovernmental organization which regulates international trade. The WTO officially commenced on 1 January 1995 under the Marrakesh Agreement, signed by 123 nations on 15 April 1994, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, most of the issues that the WTO focuses on derive from previous trade negotiations, especially from the Uruguay Round. The WTO is attempting to complete negotiations on the Doha Development Round, as of June 2012, the future of the Doha Round remained uncertain, the work programme lists 21 subjects in which the original deadline of 1 January 2005 was missed, and the round is still incomplete. This impasse has made it impossible to launch new WTO negotiations beyond the Doha Development Round, as a result, there have been an increasing number of bilateral free trade agreements between governments. As of July 2012, there were various groups in the WTO system for the current agricultural trade negotiation which is in the condition of stalemate. The WTOs current Director-General is Roberto Azevêdo, who leads a staff of over 600 people in Geneva, a trade facilitation agreement, part of the Bali Package of decisions, was agreed by all members on 7 December 2013, the first comprehensive agreement in the organizations history. Seven rounds of negotiations occurred under GATT, the first real GATT trade rounds concentrated on further reducing tariffs. Then, the Kennedy Round in the mid-sixties brought about a GATT anti-dumping Agreement, because these plurilateral agreements were not accepted by the full GATT membership, they were often informally called codes. Several of these codes were amended in the Uruguay Round, only four remained plurilateral, but in 1997 WTO members agreed to terminate the bovine meat and dairy agreements, leaving only two. Well before GATTs 40th anniversary, its members concluded that the GATT system was straining to adapt to a new globalizing world economy. In response to the problems identified in the 1982 Ministerial Declaration, the GATT still exists as the WTOs umbrella treaty for trade in goods, updated as a result of the Uruguay Round negotiations. GATT1994 is not however the only legally binding agreement included via the Final Act at Marrakesh, the highest decision-making body of the WTO is the Ministerial Conference, which usually meets every two years. It brings together all members of the WTO, all of which are countries or customs unions, the Ministerial Conference can take decisions on all matters under any of the multilateral trade agreements. When agricultural export subsidies were agreed to be phased out and adoption of the European Unions Everything, the WTO launched the current round of negotiations, the Doha Development Round, at the fourth ministerial conference in Doha, Qatar in November 2001. This was to be an effort to make globalization more inclusive and help the worlds poor, particularly by slashing barriers. The initial agenda comprised both further trade liberalization and new rule-making, underpinned by commitments to strengthen substantial assistance to developing countries. Among the various functions of the WTO, these are regarded by analysts as the most important and it provides a forum for negotiations and for settling disputes. Another priority of the WTO is the assistance of developing, least-developed and low-income countries in transition to adjust to WTO rules and disciplines through technical cooperation and training.

32. Nutrition – Nutrition is the science that interprets the interaction of nutrients and other substances in food in relation to maintenance, growth, reproduction, health and disease of an organism. It includes food intake, absorption, assimilation, biosynthesis, catabolism, the diet of an organism is what it eats, which is largely determined by the availability, the processing and palatability of foods. A healthy diet includes preparation of food and storage methods that preserve nutrients from oxidation, heat or leaching, and they also provide preventive and therapeutic programs at work places, schools and similar institutions. Government regulation especially in terms of licensing, is less universal for the CCN than that of RD or RDN. Another advanced Nutrition Professional is a Certified Nutrition Specialist or CNS and these Board Certified Nutritionists typically specialize in obesity and chronic disease. In order to become certified, potential CNS candidate must pass an examination. This exam covers specific domains within the health sphere including, Clinical Intervention, a poor diet can cause the wasting of kwashiorkor in acute cases, and the stunting of marasmus in chronic cases of malnutrition. The first recorded dietary advice, carved into a Babylonian stone tablet in about 2500 BC, scurvy, later found to be a vitamin C deficiency, was first described in 1500 BC in the Ebers Papyrus. According to Walter Gratzer, the study of nutrition probably began during the 6th century BC, in China, the concept of Qi developed, a spirit or wind similar to what Western Europeans later called pneuma. Food was classified into hot and cold in China, India, Malaya, humours developed perhaps first in China alongside qi. Ho the Physician concluded that diseases are caused by deficiencies of elements, the first recorded nutritional experiment with human subjects is found in the Bibles Book of Daniel. Daniel and his friends were captured by the king of Babylon during an invasion of Israel, selected as court servants, they were to share in the kings fine foods and wine. But they objected, preferring vegetables and water in accordance with their Jewish dietary restrictions, the kings chief steward reluctantly agreed to a trial. Daniel and his friends received their diet for ten days and were compared to the kings men. Appearing healthier, they were allowed to continue with their diet, around 475 BC, Anaxagoras stated that food is absorbed by the human body and, therefore, contains homeomerics, suggesting the existence of nutrients. Around 400 BC, Hippocrates, who recognized and was concerned with obesity, the works that are still attributed to him, Corpus Hippocraticum, called for moderation and emphasized exercise. Salt, pepper and other spices were prescribed for various ailments in various preparations for example mixed with vinegar, in the 2nd century BC, Cato the Elder believed that cabbage could cure digestive diseases, ulcers, warts, and intoxication. Living about the turn of the millennium, Aulus Celsus, an ancient Roman doctor, believed in strong and weak foods.

33. FDA Food Safety Modernization Act – The Food Safety Modernization Act was signed into law by President Barack Obama on January 4,2011. The FSMA has given the Food and Drug Administration new authorities to regulate the way foods are grown, the law grants the FDA a number of new powers, including mandatory recall authority, which the agency has sought for many years. The FSMA requires the FDA to undertake more than a dozen rulemakings and issue at least 10 guidance documents, as well as a host of reports, plans, strategies, standards, notices, and other tasks. The law was prompted after many reported incidents of foodborne illnesses during the first decade of the 2000s, tainted food has cost the food industry billions of dollars in recalls, lost sales and legal expenses. This bill is similar to the Food Safety Enhancement Act which passed the House in 2009 and it is considered the first major piece of federal legislation addressing food safety since 1938. It is also the first piece of legislation to address intentional adulteration, the Center for Disease Control and Prevention estimated in 2011 that each year 48 million people get sick,128,000 are hospitalized, and 3,000 die of foodborne diseases. The CDC estimates that there are two groups of foodborne illnesses, Known foodborne pathogens and Unspecified agents. 31 pathogens are notorious for causing foodborne illness, Unspecified agents have insufficient data to estimate with certainty the agent-specific burden. Known agents that have not been identified as causing foodborne illness include microbes, chemicals, the ability for these known agents to cause illness has not been proven so they remain unidentified. The FDA Food Safety Modernization Act, enables FDA to better public health by strengthening the food safety system. It enables the FDA to focus more on preventing food safety problems rather than relying primarily on reacting to problems after they occur. Over the past few years, high-profile outbreaks related to foods, from spinach. Under this law the FDA will be allowed to mandate a system that is based on science and this means that the FDA has the power to oversee how foods are produced and how they are maintained in food markets. This puts greater emphasis on preventing food-borne illness, the reasoning is simple, The better the system handles producing, processing, transporting, and preparing foods, the safer our food supply will be. Under the new law, the FDA will now have new prevention-focused tools, for example, for the first time, the FDA has a legislative mandate to require comprehensive, preventive-based controls across the food supply chain. Preventive controls include steps that a facility would take to prevent or significantly minimize the likelihood of problems occurring. The new law also significantly enhances the FDA’s ability to achieve greater oversight of the millions of products coming into the United States from other countries each year. The events of Sep 11,2001 reinforced the need to enhance the security of the United States, Congress responded by passing the Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness Response Act, the Bioterrorism Act, which President Bush signed into law June 12,2002.

34. Australia – Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia.

35. European Union – The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum.

36. France – France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks.

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